Soils

Rumi’s Seven Advices: “In

modesty and humility, be like
the soil.”
 Soils
• Definition
• Pedogenesis-factors
• Classification/Taxonomy
– Texture
• texture triangle
• Phi scale
• Stoniness
– Structure
– Color-Munsell color
– pH
– phosphates
• Study of profiles
– Sampling
• Grain size distribution
 Definition of Soil
• soil - (i) The unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the
immediate surface of the Earth that serves as a natural medium for
the growth of land plants. (ii) The unconsolidated mineral or organic
matter on the surface of the Earth that has been subjected to and
shows effects of genetic and environmental factors of: climate
(including water and temperature effects), and macro- and
microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent material
over a period of time. A product-soil differs from the material from
which it is derived in many physical, chemical, biological, and
morphological properties and characteristics. (Soil Science Society
of America, Soil Science Glossary)
• “Soil consists of the horizons near the earth’s surface that, in
contrast to the underlying parent material, have been altered by the
interactions of climate, relief, and living organisms over time.” (from
Soil Taxonomy, USDA)
• Note: Soil usually must have biological activity
 Pedogenesis
• Soils evolve naturally through a process called
pedogenesis.
• The five main factors the influence soil evolution and
development are:
– Time
– Parent material
– Climate
– Relief and topography (geomorphology)
– Flora and fauna
• These factors in combination lead to the characteristics of
the many individual soil types we observe in nature
• Note that the first three are the same that influence
geomorphology
– Soils and landforms are very closely correlated
– The concepts of soil associations and catenas help describe the
relationships between geomorphology and soils
 Soil Taxonomy
• Soil scientists have developed taxonomies to
help describe and analyze the variations and
similarities among soil types
• Many classifications
– Mostly national, but also indigenous ones
• USDA Classification
– A hierarchical taxonomy with multiple levels
• Order, Suborder, Great group, Subgroup, Family, series
– County soil surveys focus on lower levels
• FAO—Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations
– Attempt at a world-wide classification
 USDA Soil Taxonomy
• Alfisols — moderately weathered, form under boreal or broadleaf forests, rich in
iron and aluminum
• Andisols — form in volcanic ash and defined as containing high proportions of
glass and amorphous colloidal materials, including allophane, imogolite and
ferrihydrite
• Aridisols — (from the Latin aridus, for “dry”) form in an arid or semiarid climate
• Entisols — do not show any "significant" soil profile development. Minimal soil
horizons.
• Gelisols — soils of very cold climates which are defined as containing
permafrost within two meters of the soil surface
• Histosols — consist primarily of organic materials
• Inceptisols — form quickly through alteration of parent material
• Mollisols — form in semiarid to semihumid areas, typically under a grassland
cover
• Oxisols — best known for their occurrence in tropical rain forest
• Spodosols — typical soils of coniferous or boreal forests
• Ultisols — commonly known as red clay soils
• Vertisols — high content of expansive clay
Soil Catena
 Soil horizons
• Soil horizons develop over time
as a result of the biological,
chemical, and physical
changes that affect soils
• They are not necessarily
depositional units
• They are developmental units
the evolve over time
• There is a pretty standard
sequence of major units:
– A, B, C or sometimes
– A, E, B, C, R
– Major units can have subtypes
 Soil horizons—Alfisols
moderately weathered, form under boreal or broadleaf forests, rich in iron
and aluminum
Soil Horizons
Soil Horizons
Basic Master Subordinate
Soil Horizons distinctions
• O a
b
Highly decomposed organic matter
Buried soil horizon
• A c
e
Concretions or nodules
Intermediately decomposed organic matter
• E f
g
Frozen soil
Strong gleying

• E/B h
k
Illuvial accumulation of organic matter
Accumulation of carbonates

• AC m
n
Strong cementation
Accumulation of sodium

• B
o
p
Residual accumulation of sesquioxides
Plowing or other disturbance

• BC
q
r
Accumulation of silica
Weathered or soft bedrock
s Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides
• C t Accumulation of clay
v Plinthite
• R w Color or structural B
x Frangipan character
y Accumulation of gypsum
z Accumulation of salts
 Figure 2. Peoria loess
at study site, showing
39 soil horizons.

Wang H et al. Geology 2000;28:771-774

©2000 by Geological Society of America

 Soil Texture
• Soil texture can be estimated in the field by observing its physical
characteristics.
• A sandy soil feels gritty and falls apart easily if formed into a ball
when moist.
• A loamy soil feels somewhat gritty, yet is easy to work; it has
relatively even amounts of sand, silt, and clay; if formed into a ball
when moist, it holds its shape, yet still breaks apart easily when
squeezed.
• A silty soil breaks apart easily and has a floury appearance when
dry. When moist, silty soils have a slick feel and form no ribbon
when pinched between fingers and thumb.
• A clayey soil forms large, hard clods and cracks form on the
surface. Clayey soils feel sticky and are bendable when moist. A
ribbon can be formed when moist by pinching soil between fingers
and thumb. A longer ribbon formed before it breaks indicates a
higher amount of clay.
 Texture:
Particle size
Wentworth
and phi
scales
 Particle Sorting
• This is about the statistical size
distribution and can be studied
mathematically
Rounding-Angularity
Sphericity-platyness
(and rounding)
Sphericity
Field test for
soil texture
(simplified)
Soil Texture triangle
Soil Particle sizes
Table 1.
The Size of Sand, Silt and Clay
Name Particle Diameter

Clay below 0.002 millimeters

Silt 0.002 to 0.05 millimeters

Very fine sand 0.05 to 0.10 millimeters

Fine sand 0.10 to 0.25 millimeters
Medium sand 0.25 to 0.5 millimeters
Coarse sand 0.5 to 1.0 millimeters
Very coarse sand 1.0 to 2.0 millimeters

Gravel 2.0 to 75.0 millimeters

greater than 75.0 millimeters

Rock
(~2")
 Munsell Color system
• Hue, value,
and chroma
• And the color
name
• Example:
• 2.5YR 5/4,
reddish brown
• Measure colors
of mottles too