Advance Research

Methodologies and
Techniques
Levelling Expectations
 High Level of Participation.
 Excellent Level of Academic Intercourse.
 Each as a source of new understanding in the conduct of
research.
 Provides learning experiences on best practices in research.
 Organize a two-day live-in seminar on writing a research
proposal.
 Present the final paper in a national or international
conference and/or publish in a refereed journal.
The Content
• Unit 1. Overview of Research

• Meaning and Requirements of Research

• Overview of Research
• Types of Research in Educational and Public
Management
The Content
• Unit 2. Elements of Problem Formulation

• Statement of the Research Problem

• Elements in the Statement of the Research
Problem
The Content
• Unit 3. Research Designs

• Quantitative Research Designs

• Issues on Validity and Reliability
• Qualitative Studies
• Issues on Trustworthiness, Generalizability and
Dependability
The Content
• Unit 4. Unit of Analysis, Sampling Strategies,
and Data Collection Techniques: A Review

• Elements of the Study/Unit of Analysis

• Probabilistic and Non-Probabilistic Sampling
• Resolving Issues on sampling Frame
• Primary and Secondary Data Collection Techniques
The Content
• Unit 5. Processing, Data Analysis, and
Interpretation

• Processing and Analysing Data

• Interpreting Data: Progressive Approach
• Writing the Research Report
• Disseminating the Research Report
 UNIT 1.
Overview of Research
In your days of
questioning,
what are your
ways of
answering?
Ways of Knowing?
Intuition Authority

Tradition Tenacity
Supernatural
The scientific way of
Knowing:
How Research and Scientific Knowledge are
Related?
So, What is
Research? Research is a
method of inquiry
On the premise that for the purpose of
“Knowledge is Dynamic”, obtaining facts in
response to
questions we raise
from various
dimensions of life.
What defines Quality Research?
Scientific
Observes Validity and Reliability
Standards
Subject to Academic Peer Review
Publish in Academic Journals
Has Theoretical Contribution
Relevant to the Field
Immediate to Practice
Publish in Academic Magazines
or other Journals/Reports
Practical Contribution

Rigorous Relevant
Research Research

Quality
Research
How will you find value of your research?
What does it How does it
Contribute… contribute… Why does it matter?
…to the field? …contextually? Contribution to Knowledge.

Provides Theoretical
…to the academy? …theoretically?
Structure.

…to practice? …methodologically? Novel Methodology.

Wider recognition of the

…to wider society? …publicly?
Discipline.
Nature and Characteristics
of Research…
General Approaches to Research
Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge
 Is Tentative.  Is Shared and Made Public

Knowledge is theoretically Knowledge kept do not

open to further question or
scrutiny.
Knowledge can be validated
by further investigations.
Knowledge is never final. It
has to be tested over time.
contribute to the fund of
knowledge.
Publish or Perish.
Knowledge must be
disseminated for
utilization.
Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge
 Is Empirically Verifiable.  Is Ethically Neutral

Knowledge is open to Personal Bias should

validity for further not affect investigation.
investigation. Observed the ethical
considerations in
research.
Characteristics of A Good Researcher
Openness to
 Activity 1.
• Identify a Topic of Interest.
• Read Articles (at least 10) about it.
• Create a Concept Paper.
 UNIT 2.
Overview of Research
Process
General Parts of the
Research Process
Preparation
Processing of Report
of
Collection Information
of Data

Identification of
the Research
Methodology
Identification of the
Research Topic and
Specification of the
Research Problem
Identification of the Research Topic and
Specification of the Research Problem
Tips in the Identification of the Topic
 What type of learner are you?
 Make it short and simple.
 Choose your topic before your design.
 Choose a topic in which you have interest as
well as some experience and expertise.
 Think about the research problem (if it is
really a research problem).
 Make sure your subject are accessible.
Checklist for the chosen topic

• Is it IMPORTANT?
• Is it INTERESTING?
• Is it INTELLIGIBLE?
• Does it require VARIOUS SOURCES?
• Is it MANAGEABLE?
Identification of the Research Topic and Specification of the Research Problem
Components :
• Review of Literature
• Reasons and Nature
• Theoretical Framework
• Type of the Research
Problem
Components :
• Hypothesis / Assumptions
• Variables
• Level of Measurement
• Operational and Conceptual
Definitions of Terms
• Indicators
• Significance of the Study
 Approach
Types of Research
Problem
Qualitative Quantitative

More concerned with drawing

Focused on Quantifying the occurrence
Descriptive categories or patterns to summarize
of certain events.
the event.

Focuses on narrative statement of Quantifies and applies inferential

Explanatory or
factors from key informants to statistics to establish why a certain
Relational
establish relationships. event occurs among variables.

Requires relative care in controlling

Focuses on narrative statements to extraneous variables to attribute
Causal
trace the cause. occurrence of a given event to a given
independent variable.
Research in Educational Management
 Operations Research
 A change-oriented research inspired by recognition of a
problem by the organization. The completeness of
Operations Research is dependent on the acceptance and
implementation of the recommendation.
 Evaluation Research
 Measures or assesses the performance (or potential
performance) of programs or projects intended for the
good of the academe.
Research in Educational Management
 Policy Research
 Is inspired by the existence of a problem or issue that has to be
addresses by the formulation or reformulation of policy at some level of
the hierarchy.
 Discipline Research
 Is not necessarily inspired by the existence of an actual or potential
practical problem. It may simply commence with an interest in
explaining a given phenomenon or event that is not yet fully
understood. The goal may be to gain knowledge for its own sake,
knowledge that may have no obvious practical implications for policy
or management. It is a study conducted in order to formulate a theory or
build on an existing one. This is sometimes called academic research.
OPERATIONS RESEARCH Purpose:
To help decision makers
• Is basically understood determine what corrective
measures can be instituted
in the context of to improve the flow of
organizational resources or processes.
operations.
Processes
• Leaders • Services
• Human Resources • Goods
• Financial Resources • Planning • Regulatory Measures
• Policy Statement • Implementation Compliance
(legal and •
administrative
Monitoring • Manpower
mandates) • Evaluation
Inputs Outputs
Possible Research Questions for Operations
Research
• How inputs are affecting the • Adequacy and appropriateness of
expected delivery or production inputs for the organizations’
of outputs. operations.
• How process are affecting the • Responsiveness of existing
expected delivery or production procedures to the changing needs
of outputs. and demands.
• Factors that relate to or influence • Feedback system to the
the occurrence of the problem in provisions of the
and among the components clients’/stakeholders’ needs.
(input, process, output).
Unit of Analysis
• The Internal Components of the
organization
• Input: Leaders, Human Resources,
Financial Resources, Policy Statement
(legal and administrative mandates).
• Process: Planning, Implementation,
Monitoring, and Evaluation.
• Output: Services, Goods, Regulatory
Measures Compliance, and Manpower.
Role of the Researcher
• Empirical and Normative.
• Empirical since evidence is collected
to identify factors affecting the
problem. Also, several options can be
tested to determine the optimal
solution – the most feasible in terms
of time, resources and implications to
clients.
• Normative in the aspect of choosing
and implementing the
recommendation. Normative also
since choice is based also on value-
judgment.
EVALUATION RESEARCH
• Purpose: • Other Necessary Information in
• To help policy makers determine Evaluation Research
whether the program or project • Help management determine
has attained or is able to attain its problems in the implementation;
purpose. • Determine corrective measures to
• Direction of Evaluation Research resolve issues and problems;
• Implementation or Not of the • Conduct of stakeholders’ analysis
Policy/Program; for program’s implication;
• Termination of Program because its
initial consequences have not been
positive;
• Program Expansion or replication to
other areas.
Possible Research
Questions for Evaluation
Research
• Level of Performance of
program and the factors affecting
the performance;
• Effect or impact of the program
on the beneficiaries and other
sectors or groups affected by it;
• Evaluation of the outcomes (long
term effect) of the program.
Unit of Analysis
• The Program or Project
• Dara from:
• Program implementer;
• Program beneficiaries;
• Program partners; and
• Program outside
stakeholders.
 Types of Evaluative Research
Research Problem Research Purpose Types
To determine the potential performance To ascertain whether program is worth Ex ante Evaluation
(Is it likely to succeed or fail?) implementing.
To determine factors that may affect To determine what aspects of the program can
potential performance be modified to assure succesful implementation

To determine how the program is To determine what corrective measures to apply In vivo or Process
performing to improve implementation Evaluation

To determine factors that influence how To determine if the program should be stopped
it is being implemented or continued.
To determine whether the program To determine if program merits expansion or Ex post or Impact
succeeded or failed. replication. Evaluation

To determine the factors that led to To ascertain what aspects can be modified to
success or failure. improve implementation in other sites.
POLICY RESEARCH
• Purpose:
• To help policy makers make a
decision towards the issuance of a
policy directive or statement.
• It is the scientific basis for
formulating conclusions or
recommendations regarding the
policy options.
• Research Questions:
• Implications or consequences of
the policy options.
• Stages
• Validation of the problem that
requires policy research;
• Understanding of past and current
policies to respond to the problem;
• Identification of the Policy Option
to address the problem;
• Detailing the Consequences of
every option.
• Unit of Analysis
• Policy Options to be evaluated
DISCIPLINE
RESEARCH
• Research Questions • Purpose of the study
• Vary depending upon is to generate
the interest of the concepts or build
researcher.
• Thus, unit of analysis
theory.
depends on the subject • The role of the
of investigation and is researcher is mainly
not restricted. empirical.
 UNIT 3.
Research Designs
Designing your Research

• Research Design

• The overall plan for collecting data in

order to answer the research question.
Also the specific data analysis techniques
or methods that the researcher intends to
use.
Purpose of Research as a Factor in Choosing
a Research Design
Purpose Definition
Exploratory Use when there are very few or no earlier studies to which we can refer for
information about the issue or
problem. The aim of this type of study is to look for patterns, ideas or hypotheses.

Descriptive Use to describe phenomena as they exist. It is used to identify and obtain
information on the characteristics of a particular problem or issue.

Explanatory Aims to understand phenomena by discovering and measuring relations among

variables. (Correlate)
Predictive Aims to generalize from the analysis by predicting
certain phenomena on the basis of hypothesized, general relationships.

Experimental Aims to identify the effect of an independent variable to a dependent variable.

The Experimental Research Design
• An experiment is a scientific investigation in which the researcher
manipulates one or more independent variables, controls any other
relevant variables, and observes the effect of the manipulations on the
dependent variable(s).
• Only research problems that permit a researcher to manipulate conditions
are appropriate for experimental research.
• The goal of experimental research is to determine whether a causal
relationship exists between two or more variables.
• This research method provides the most convincing evidence of the effect
that one variable has on another.
Basic Elements of
Experiment
Design of Experiments
• Pre-Experimental designs
• True-Experimental designs
• Quasi-Experimental designs

1. Is there a (significant) difference on the pre-test and

post-test performance of grade 7 learners in algebra?
Data Analysis
• Paired t-test
• Independent t-test (with equal Variance)
• Independent t-Test (with unequal Variance)
• Levene’s test for Equality of Variance
• ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance)
• MANCOVA
• ANOVA
• One-way
• Two-Way
• Three-Way
Sample Size
 At least 30 for each group.
 Correlational Research Designs
• Uses of Correlational Research
• Assessing the degree, direction
and significance of the
relationship between and
among variables;
• Assess the consistency of the
subjects’ responses to a given
test; and
• Basis for prediction.
Design of Correlations
• Descriptive-Correlative
• Correlational
• Exploratory Factor Analysis
• Confirmatory Factor Analysis
• Canonical Correlation
• Discriminant Analysis
• Path Analysis
• Structured Equation Modelling
Data Analysis
• Pearson-r correlation
coefficient
• Spearman rho correlation
• Biserial correlation
• Point Biserial Correlation
• Partial Correlation
• Chi-Square
• Chi-square based statistics
• Phi-Coefficient
• Contingency Coefficient
• Cramers’ V
• McNemars Test
 Common Factor Analysis
 Canonical Correlation Analysis
 Discriminant Analysis
 Path Analysis
 Structural Equation Modelling
 Principal Component Analysis
 Regression Analysis
 Binary Logistic Analysis
 Ordinal Regression Analysis
 Multiple Discriminant Analysis
Sample Size (Regression Studies)

To test Over-all Model

• Sample size = 50 + 8k

To test individual Variable

• Sample Size = 104 + k
Descriptive Designs (Quantitative)

• Descriptive-Survey • Descriptive-Normative
• Longitudinal • Descriptive-Assessment
• Panel • Descriptive-Evaluative
• Cohort • Descriptive-Comparative
• Trend
• Cross-sectional
Data Analysis
• Measures of Central  Measures of Variation
Tendency  Range
• Mean
• Median  Mean Absolute Deviation
• Mode  Interquartile range
• Other Measures
• Frequency
 Standard Deviation
• Percentage  Variance
• Rank
 Coefficient of Variation
Sample Size
Descriptive Designs (Qualitative)

•Qualitative Taxonomies

• Individual lived experience genres, which include

phenomenological research as well as life histories,
testimonies, and some feminist inquiry;
• The genre of society and culture, which includes
ethnography and its variants as well as action research; and
• The language and communication genre, which
encompasses all approaches that examine both spoken
language and text-based and other forms of expression.
Case Studies
• Definition: A case study focuses on a single unit to
produce an in-depth description that is rich and
holistic.
• Basic Question Addressed:
• “What are the characteristics of this particular
entity, phenomenon, person, or setting?”
 Three types of case studies
The intrinsic case study is conducted to understand a particular case that may be
unusual, unique, or different in some way. The case in and of itself is of interest to the
researcher.

In an instrumental case study, the researcher selects the case because it represents
some other issue under investigation and the researcher believes this particular case
can help provide insights or help to understand that issue.

The multiple or collective case study uses several cases selected to further understand
and investigate a phenomenon, population, or general condition. The researcher
believes that the phenomenon is not idiosyncratic to a single unit and studying multiple
units can provide better illumination.
Content and Document Analysis
• Definition: A research method applied to written
or visual materials for the purpose of identifying
specified characteristics of the material.
• The materials analysed can be textbooks,
newspapers, web pages, speeches, television
programs, advertisements, musical compositions,
or any of a host of other types of documents.
Content analysis is widely used in Education.
Purposes of content analysis :
1. To identify bias, prejudice, or propaganda in textbooks.

For example, a researcher might analyze high school history texts in a particular school
district to determine how often women are mentioned and how much discussion is given
in each mention.

2. To analyze types of errors in students’ writings.

For example, you could look at students’ written work to classify spelling or grammatical
errors and their nature and frequency.

3. To describe prevailing practices.

For example, you could identify the entrance requirements of Big Ten universities by
analyzing their bulletins.
Purposes of content analysis :

4. To discover the level of diffi culty of material in textbooks or other

publications.

For example, you could ask, “What is the vocabulary level of the fourth-
grade social studies textbooks in this district?”

5. To discover the relative importance of, or interest in, certain topics.

For example, you might analyze popular educational research

textbooks to see the coverage given to qualitative research and changes in
that coverage over time.
Ethnographic Research

• Definition: An in-depth study of naturally occurring

behaviour within a culture or entire social group. It seeks
to understand the relationship between culture and
behavior, with culture referring to the shared beliefs,
values, concepts, practices, and attitudes of a specifi c
group of people. It examines what people do and
interprets why they do it.
• Basic Question Addressed:

• “What are the cultural patterns and perspectives

of this group in its natural setting?”

• The final product is a cultural portrait that

incorporates the views of participants (emic
perspective) as well as views of researcher (etic
perspective).
Two approaches to ethnography

Realist ethnography is the more traditional approach. In realist ethnography,

the researcher tries to provide an objective account of the situation, typically
from a third-person point of view. Standard categories are used, and factual
information and closely edited quotes are presented as data. The researcher’s
interpretation occurs at the end.

In critical ethnography, the researcher takes an advocacy perspective and has

a value-laden orientation. The researcher is advocating for a marginalized
group, challenging the status quo, or attempting to empower the group by
giving it voice.
Grounded Theory
• Definition: This research approach focuses on gathering data about
peoples’ experiences in a particular context and then inductively
building a theory “from the bottom up.”
• Process: Grounded theory moves beyond description to generate or
discover a theory that emerges from the data and that provides an
explanation of a process, action, or interaction.
• Goal: To inductively build a theory about a practice or phenomenon
using interviews and observation as the primary data collection
tools.
Phenomenological Research
• Definition: designed to describe and interpret an
experience by determining the meaning of the
experience as perceived by the people who have
participated in it.
• Key Question:
• What is the experience of an activity or concept from the
perspective of particular participants?
• Key Philosophical Principle: Bracketing or Epoche
Phenomenological Research
The following are examples of topics that have been
studied by phenomenological researchers:
The meaning of aging
How children think about the environment Disappointment in teacher–student
relationships
Math anxiety
The experience of insomnia Daydreaming
Forgiveness and reconciliation Loneliness
Shame
The experience of re-reading
Chronic pain
The experience of studying a foreign
language
Other Naturalistic Research Designs
• Netnography
• Phenomenography
• Semiotic or Discourse Analysis
• Narrative
• Bibliographic
• Photo Voice
Qualitative Data
Analysis
Specific Guidelines on “What to
Write” in the Methodology.
• Research Design?
• Research Locale
• Research Respondents and Sampling Technique?
• Research Instrument?
• Data Collection Procedure?
• Data Analysis Technique?