Chp. # 2

Cost-Volume-Profit
Relationships
CHAPTER 2
Learning Objectives
Describe the use of financial modeling
for profit-planning purposes.
Explain how to perform cost-volume-
profit (CVP) analysis.
Explain how to perform sensitivity
analysis to check your assumptions.
Compute the break-even point (BEP) for
a multiproduct company.
What is FM?
Financial modeling
enables analysts to
test the interaction of
economic variables
in a variety of settings.
It requires analysts to
develop a set of
equations that
represents a
company’s operating
and financial relations.
3
Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis
Is a powerful tool that helps managers make
important business decisions
Is a relationship among costs, volume, and profit
or loss
Determines how much the company must sell
each month just to cover costs or to break even
Helps managers decide how sales volume would
need to change to achieve the same profit level
4
Components of CVP Analysis
CVP analysis relies on the interdependency of
five components or pieces of information
–Sales price per unit
–Volume sold
–Variable costs per unit
–Fixed costs
–Operating income
If you know or can estimate four of these five
components, you can compute the remaining
unknown amount
5
2-6
Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis: Key

Assumptions
To simplify CVP calculations, managers typically adopt the following
assumptions with respect to these factors:
1. Selling price is constant. The price of a product or service will

not change as volume changes.
2. Costs are linear and can be accurately divided into variable

and fixed components. The variable costs are constant per
unit and the fixed costs are constant in total over the entire
relevant range.
3. In multiproduct companies, the mix of products sold remains

constant.
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consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
2-7
Basics of Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis

The contribution income statement is helpful to managers in
judging the impact on profits of changes in selling price, cost,
or volume. The emphasis is on cost behavior.
Racing Bicycle Company
Contribution Income Statement
For the Month of June
Sales (500 bicycles) $ 250,000
Less: Variable expenses 150,000
Contribution margin 100,000
Less: Fixed expenses 80,000
Net operating income $ 20,000
CM is used first to cover fixed expenses. Any remaining CM

contributes to net operating income.
2-8
The Contribution Approach – Part 1

Sales, variable expenses, and contribution margin can also be expressed on a per
unit basis. If Racing sells an additional bicycle, $200 additional CM will be
generated to cover fixed expenses and profit.

Total Per Unit
Sales (500 bicycles) $ 250,000 $ 500
Less: Variable expenses 150,000 300
Contribution margin 100,000 $ 200
2-9

Each month, RBC must generate at least $80,000 in total contribution
margin to break-even (which is the level of sales at which profit is zero).

Total Per Unit
Sales (500 bicycles) $ 250,000 $ 500
2-10

If RBC sells 400 units in a month, it will be
operating at the break-even point.

Total Per Unit
Sales (400 bicycles) $ 200,000 $ 500
Net operating income $ -
2-11

If RBC sells one more bike (401 bikes), net
operating income will increase by $200.
Total Per Unit
Sales (401 bicycles) $ 200,500 $ 500
Net operating income $ 200
12
BEP Definition
Is the point in the basic CVP model where

revenues equal costs.
Total Revenue = Total Costs
13
2-14
Break-Even Analysis: Formula Method
Unit sales to Fixed expenses

=
break even CM per unit
$80,000
Unit sales =
$200
Unit sales = 400
2-15
Break-Even Analysis: Dollar Sales Using

CM Ratio
Now, let’s use the CM ratio to calculate the dollar sales
at the break-even point.
Dollar sales to Fixed expenses

=
break even CM ratio
$80,000
Dollar sales =
40%
Dollar sales = $200,000
2-16
Preparing the CVP Graph – Break-Even

Point
$350,000 Break-even point
(400 units or $200,000 in sales) Profit Area
$300,000
$250,000
$200,000
Dollars
Sales
Total expenses
$150,000 Fixed expenses
$100,000
$50,000
$0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Loss Area Units

2-17
Target Profit Analysis

In target profit analysis, we estimate what sales
volume is needed to achieve a specific target profit.
We can also compute the number of units that must

be sold to attain a target profit using either:
Equation OR Formula
Method Method
2-18
Target Profit Analysis – Formula Method

The formula method uses the following equation.
Unit sales to attain Target profit + Fixed expenses

=
the target profit CM per unit
2-19
Target Profit Analysis – Formula Method

Solution
Suppose RBC wants to know how many bikes must

be sold to earn a profit of $100,000.
Unit sales to attain Target profit + Fixed expenses

=
the target profit CM per unit
$100,000 + $80,000
Unit sales =
$200
Unit sales = 900
20
2-21
The Margin of Safety in Dollars

The margin of safety is the excess of budgeted or actual sales dollars
over the break-even volume of sales dollars. It is the amount by which
sales can drop before losses are incurred. The higher the margin of
safety, the lower the risk of not breaking even and incurring a loss.
Margin of safety in dollars = Total sales - Break-even sales
Let’s look at RBC and determine the margin of

safety.
2-22
The Margin of Safety in Dollars - Example

If we assume that RBC has actual sales of $250,000, given
that we have already determined the break-even sales to
be $200,000, the margin of safety is $50,000 as shown.
Break-even
sales Actual sales
400 units 500 units
Sales $ 200,000 $ 250,000
Less: variable expenses 120,000 150,000
Contribution margin 80,000 100,000
Less: fixed expenses 80,000 80,000
Net operating income $ - $ 20,000
2-23
The Margin of Safety Percentage

RBC’s margin of safety can be expressed as 20% of sales.
($50,000 ÷ $250,000)
Break-even
sales Actual sales
400 units 500 units
Sales $ 200,000 $ 250,000
Less: variable expenses 120,000 150,000
Less: fixed expenses 80,000 80,000
Net operating income $ - $ 20,000
2-24
The Margin of Safety in Units

The margin of safety can be expressed in terms
of the number of units sold. The margin of
safety at RBC is $50,000, and each bike sells for
$500; hence, RBC’s margin of safety is 100
bikes.
Margin of $50,000
= = 100 bikes
Safety in units $500
Operating
Leverage
It is a measure, at
any given level of
sales, of how a
percentage change
in sales volume will
affect profits.
25
2-26
Cost Structure and Profit Stability

Cost structure refers to the relative
proportion of fixed and variable costs in
an organization. Managers often have
some latitude in determining their
organization’s cost structure.
2-27
Cost Structure and Profit Stability – High

and Low Fixed Cost Structures
There are advantages and disadvantages to high fixed cost (or low
variable cost) and low fixed cost (or high variable cost) structures.
An advantage of a high fixed

cost structure is that income A disadvantage of a high fixed
will be higher in good years cost structure is that income
compared to companies will be lower in bad years
with lower proportion of compared to companies
fixed costs. with lower proportion of
fixed costs.
Companies with low fixed cost structures enjoy greater stability in
income across good and bad years.
2-28
Operating Leverage
Degree of Contribution margin

operating leverage = Net operating income
2-29
Operating Leverage - Example

To illustrate, let’s revisit the contribution income
statement for RBC.
Actual sales
500 Bikes
Sales $ 250,000
Less: variable expenses 150,000
Contribution margin 100,000
Less: fixed expenses 80,000
Net income $ 20,000
Degree of
$100,000 = 5
Operating =
$20,000
Leverage
2-30
Operating Leverage – Change in Profit

With an operating leverage of 5, if RBC increases its sales by 10%, net
operating income would increase by 50%.
Percent increase in sales 10%

Degree of operating leverage × 5
Percent increase in profits 50%
Here’s the verification!
2-31
Operating Leverage – Proof of Changes

Actual sales Increased
(500) sales (550)
Sales $ 250,000 $ 275,000
Less variable expenses 150,000 165,000
Less fixed expenses 80,000 80,000
Net operating income $ 20,000 $ 30,000
10% increase in sales from

$250,000 to $275,000 . . .
. . . results in a 50% increase in
income from $20,000 to $30,000.
32
2-33
The Definition of Sales Mix

• Sales mix is the relative proportion in which a company’s
products are sold.
• Different products have different selling prices, cost
structures, and contribution margins.
• When a company sells more than one product, break-
even analysis becomes more complex as the following
example illustrates.
Let’s assume RBC sells bikes and carts and that the sales mix
between the two products remains the same.
2-34
Sales Mix and Break-Even Analysis –

Part 1
Bikes comprise 45% of RBC’s total sales revenue and the carts
comprise the remaining 55%. RBC provides the following
information:
Bicycle Carts Total

Sales $ 250,000 100% $ 300,000 100% $ 550,000 100.0%
Variable expenses 150,000 60% 135,000 45% 285,000 51.8%
Contribution margin 100,000 40.0% 165,000 55% 265,000 48.2%
Fixed expenses 170,000
Sales mix $ 250,000 45% $ 300,000 55% $ 550,000 100%
$265,000 = 48.2% (rounded)

$550,000
2-35
Sales Mix and Break-Even Analysis – Part

2
Dollar sales to Fixed expenses
=
break even CM ratio
Dollar sales to $170,000 = $352,697

=
break even 48.2%
Bicycle Carts Total

Sales $ 158,714 100% $ 193,983 100% $ 352,697 100.0%
Variable expenses 95,228 60% 87,293 45% 182,521 51.8%
Contribution margin 63,485 40% 106,691 55% 170,176 48.2%
Fixed expenses 170,000
Net operating income Rounding error $ 176
Sales mix $ 158,714 45% $ 193,983 55% $ 352,697 100.0%
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Cost-Volume-Profit

Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis: Key

1. Selling price is constant. The price of a product or service will

2. Costs are linear and can be accurately divided into variable

3. In multiproduct companies, the mix of products sold remains

Basics of Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis

CM is used first to cover fixed expenses. Any remaining CM

The Contribution Approach – Part 1

Racing Bicycle Company

The Contribution Approach – Part 2

Racing Bicycle Company

The Contribution Approach – Part 3

Racing Bicycle Company

The Contribution Approach – Part 4

Is the point in the basic CVP model where

Break-Even Analysis: Formula Method

Unit sales to Fixed expenses

Break-Even Analysis: Dollar Sales Using

Dollar sales to Fixed expenses

Preparing the CVP Graph – Break-Even

Loss Area Units

Target Profit Analysis

We can also compute the number of units that must

Target Profit Analysis – Formula Method

Unit sales to attain Target profit + Fixed expenses

Target Profit Analysis – Formula Method

Suppose RBC wants to know how many bikes must

Unit sales to attain Target profit + Fixed expenses

The Margin of Safety in Dollars

Margin of safety in dollars = Total sales - Break-even sales

Let’s look at RBC and determine the margin of

The Margin of Safety in Dollars - Example

The Margin of Safety Percentage

The Margin of Safety in Units

Cost Structure and Profit Stability

Cost Structure and Profit Stability – High

An advantage of a high fixed

Degree of Contribution margin

Operating Leverage - Example

Operating Leverage – Change in Profit

Percent increase in sales 10%

Here’s the verification!

Operating Leverage – Proof of Changes

10% increase in sales from

The Definition of Sales Mix

Sales Mix and Break-Even Analysis –

Bicycle Carts Total

Sales mix $ 250,000 45% $ 300,000 55% $ 550,000 100%

$265,000 = 48.2% (rounded)

Sales Mix and Break-Even Analysis – Part

Dollar sales to $170,000 = $352,697

Bicycle Carts Total

Sales mix $ 158,714 45% $ 193,983 55% $ 352,697 100.0%

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