Gender, Food Security, and Migration

Course Code: GS 567

 GS 567-2: Gender and Migration
1. Migration for work – global trend
2. Social issues of migration
3. Gender, migration and poverty reduction
4. Rights based approach to women’s international labor
migration for work
 1. Migration for work – global trend

In general, Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily,
at a new location. A person who moves from one place to another in order to find work.

Global trend : (IOM)

1. MIGRANT POPULATION (STOCKS) : 258 Million INTERNATIONAL MIGRANTS were counted globally in 2017 – people
residing in a country other than their country of birth. This represented 3.4% of the world’s total population.
2. MIGRANT FLOWS: 5 Million FOREIGN-BORN PERSONS entered OECD countries in 2016.
3. LABOUR MIGRANTS : 150.3 Million MIGRANT WORKERS were counted globally in 2015.
4. INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS 4.8 Million were counted in 2016, up from 2 million in 2000.
5. REMITTANCES $466 Billion OF REMITTANCES were sent to low- and middle-income countries in 2017. This is more
than three times the size of official development assistance.
6. DISPLACEMENT: 68.5 Million INDIVIDUALS were forcibly displaced worldwide due to persecution, conflict, generalized
violence, human rights violations, or other reasons by the end of 2017.
7. IRREGULAR MIGRANTS : 50 Million IRREGULAR MIGRANTS were estimated to be living around the world in 2009.
8. REFUGEES: 25.4 Million REGISTERED REFUGEES were counted in 2017.
9. RESETTLEMENT : 102,800 REFUGEES were admitted for resettlement worldwide in 2017.
10. MISSING MIGRANTS : 6,163 MIGRANTS lost their lives or went missing during migration in 2017, at a minimum.
11. TRAFFICKING & MODERN SLAVERY : 25 Million VICTIMS OF FORCED LABOUR were estimated in 2016. Out of those,
5 million may have crossed an international border.
 1. Migration for work – global trend
 12. MIGRANT SMUGGLING : 2.5 Million IRREGULAR MIGRANTS were smuggled for an economic
return of USD 5.5-7 billion in 2016.
 13. RETURNS : 72,176 VOLUNTARY RETURNS were assisted by IOM in 2017 worldwide.
 14. INTEGRATION AND WELL-BEING : $ 6.7 Trillion CONTRIBUTION Migrants contributed 6.7
trillion US dollars to global GDP in 2015– a share of 9.4% of the total global GDP that year.
 15. CHILDREN : 14% CHILDREN In 2017, children represented 14 per cent of the stock of international
migrants.
 16. WOMEN : 48.8% WOMEN In 2017, women represented 48.8 per cent of the stock of international
migrants.
 17. ENVIRONMENT : 18.8 Million PEOPLE in 135 countries were newly displaced by sudden-onset
disasters within their own countries in 2017.
 18. GOVERNANCE : 39 COUNTRIES have taken part in IOM´s Migration Governance Indicators
project as of 2018.
 19. POTENTIAL MIGRATION : 66 Million ADULTS or 1.3% of the world’s adult population, had plans
to move permanently to another country in the next 12 months in 2015.
1. Migration for work – global trend
 20. PUBLIC OPINION :22% OF THE WORLD´S POPULATION is generally more likely to want
national immigration to be kept at its present level (22%) or increased (21%), rather than decreased
(34%) in 2015.
 21. MIGRATION DATA CAPACITY : 87%+ COUNTRIES asked about country of birth, 75% asked
for citizenship and 50% for the year or period of arrival, in their  2010 censuses. ( Souce : IOM)
 According to UNFPA, the international migrants can be divided into two groups : 1) Voluntary
migrants (in search of job /opportunities/business. Skilled and unskilled workers are engaged in
the work. 2) Forced migrants. ( Conflicts, human rights abuses and political repression are the
major causes for forced migrants/many people displace from their home communities.)
 Migration is caused due to push factors in the home countries and pull factors in the receiving
countries.
 More than 130 countries have signed the UN convention regarding the status of refugees. They
should provide help and protection to the refugess.
 International human rights law/ International Labour organization focus on protecting the rights
of migrant workers.
 1. Migration for work – global trend
 According to the UN Population Division, there was 75 million international migrants in 1965. 84 million in
1975, 105 million in 1985, 120 million in 1990, 150 million in 2000, 244 million in 2015.
 More than 50% of international migrants moved from the poorer to richer countries. The United States,
Canada and Australia are the major destination for the migrants people.
 Feminization of migration : According to Stephen Castles and Mark Miller, 1.5 million Asian Women were
working in the developed countries by Mid-1990s/ Increasing feminization of migration.
The major causes for international migration :
 -Growing economic integration and globalization.
 -Changing demographic trends and gender roles.
 -Changing Geopolitical situation after cold war.
 -Increasing technological development.
 -Increasing the number of smugglers and traffickers.
 -Harmonization of migration policies through regional and international mechanisms.
 ………………………………………………………………………..
-Migration and role of Women: The role of Women within society has been changed, Women are getting educational
opportunities, working outside of the home and participating in the various activities. Women workers in Korea.
1. Migration for work – global trend
 Migration in Nepal.
 Women have specific needs and human rights concerns. UN women, UNFPA, ILO etc.
 UNFPA focuses on addressing the problems of Women and other vulnerable migrants.
 People are migrating to the Terai from hills due to fertile land and access of transportation,
Education, health facilities etc.
 The Urbanization process is rapidly increasing in the country.
 The Current Population of Nepal is about 30 million and 5-6 million are involved in the foreign
labour migration in different countries ( Gulf countries, Europe, USA etc.)
 Easier travel, access to information about distant places, relatives and friends who have migrated
and the opportunities for improving living standards have helped to increase the Nepalese
migrant workers in the different countries.
 After 1990= Economic liberalization, open market policy, Globalization, WTO etc.
 Development as freedom= Amartya sen, Indian Nobel Laureate
 After Maoist insurgency in 1995…
 ……………………………………….????????????? ??????
 2. Social issues of migration
Push Factors
 -War
 -Poverty
 -Starvation
 -Natural disasters
 -Political instability
 -Discrimination ( Cultural conflicts on the basis of caste, creed, religion, class etc.)
 -Economic Depression
Pull Factors
 -Employment Opportunities
 -Freedom (political, religious, economic etc.)
 -Academic Opportunities
 -Settlement of family members.
 Quality of life.
 2. Social issues of migration
-Social Issues of Migration:
 Competition for resources. 99% population= 18% resources, 1% population =82% resources
 Economic hardships (When Population Increases, It is hard to get employed)
 Threat to mainstream norms and values.
 Terrorism
 Social Crime
 Visa restriction
 Destabilising (Because of sudden flow of immigrants)
 Human trafficking
 Political Instability
 Discrimination / Marginalization
 Social Security
 - ILO’s descent Work agenda, Four pillars of labour migration policy (Governance, Protection,
development, cooperation)
 3. Gender, migration and poverty reduction
 Migration has become complex and dynamic throughout the world.
 The number of destinations have been grown in course of migration in the recent years.
 The migration consists of different sex, age and ethnic compositions that enhance the processes of socio-
economic, demographic , cultural and political transformation.
 It can be seen that there is changes in population distribution and rapid rates of urbanization all over the world.
 There is contribution of migrant workers in the GDPs of the countries.
 Gender relation is the key element in case of transformative processes.
 Basically, livelihood strategies are based on access to assets that is related with economic, socio-cultural and
political systems.
 The proper distribution of assets to women and men ensures the secure livelihood.
The Changing aspects of migration :
 In the developing countries, the numbers of young people are migrating especially young women due to the
combination of increasing employment opportunities away from the home countries.
 The another reason is there is economic and resource constraints within the home countries.
 Due to modernization, the changing aspirations of youths may lead to the migration in the developed countries.
 According to ILO, Nowadays, most of the people are migrating from one place to another in search of better job.
 It is obvious that the socio-cultural transformations can be experienced in the destination countries due to rapid
rates of migration.
 3. Gender, migration and poverty reduction
The relation of migration with poverty.
 The major assets of rural households in the developing countries is land.
 In these countries, the local economic activities are based on farming and provide less opportunities for non-
agricultural income-generation.
 The land is not properly and rationally distributed between the households and women and men of the families.
 The landlessness is closely related to poverty that leads to migration in search of job for the livelihoods.
 Many of the world’s poorest people are women and they have more role as family caretakers, producers of food,
carrying water and cooking. In Hilly areas of Nepal, Women still have to utilize maximum of their daily calorie
for carrying water.
 In most of the Asian and African countries, Women don’t have the inheritance rights to land as men. They have
been working in the informal sectors and not able to make their financial resources strong.
 Due to financial crisis and poverty, millions of women and men are migrating to the developed countries for
better opportunities.
3. Gender, migration and poverty reduction
The Contribution of remittance in poverty reduction :
 The money sent by the migrant workers have helped to reduce vulnerability in the families. (better
housing, health services, schooling etc.)
 Women send higher proportion of their incomes to home than men globally. Obviously, it helps for
economic upliftment of the family.
 The contribution of the migrant workers to national as well as the world economy is undeniable. They
have played prominent role to reduce poverty globally.
 Remittances are estimated at about USD 573 billion per year globally in 2019, of which USD 422 billion
went to developing countries. (World Bank 2019)
 Most of the remittances are spent on direct consumptions as well as housing, healthcare and education.
Some parts of remittance is used for productive purposes.
 Foreign direct investment from emigrants back to their countries of origin has tremendous potential to
reduce poverty.
 Tourism from immigrant communities to the old country is a major earner for the countries.
 Philanthropy activities by Immigrants play important role for community development in the local level.
 Fundraising for the needy people in case of natural disaster.
 4. Rights based approach to women’s international labor migration for work

International Labour migration : A rights-based approach.

International labour organization (ILO) has played vital role to protect migrant workers through a right-based approach.

Rights based approach to international labour migration focuses on access of migrant workers to their fundamental rights at work.

International Norms to protect migrant workers and ensure decent work for all.

International governance structures/addressing the linkages between migration and development/ ILO’s multilateral framework on
Labour migration is improving policy making and international cooperation in the area of labour migration.

There are about 258 million migrants around the globe (IOM, 2017). Many of them are working in the worst condition/ no access to
social protection/ no labour rights.

It is the major issue how governments, employers and trade unions are working on labour rights.

Due to globalization, there is not only liberalization of trade, services, investment and capital but also by movement of people in
search of better lives and employment opportunities.

Rich countries are looking outside for low skilled workers in agriculture, food-processing, construction, manufacturing and low-
wage services such as domestic work, home health care etc.

Migrant workers and irregular migrants from the poor countries have gone to the developed countries to fulfill the demand.
4. Rights based approach to women’s international labor migration for work
 Protection of migrant workers. (Women and men)
 The right to work is a fundamental right as well as one of the keys to exercising other rights.
 The international Labour organization (ILO) has two legally binding instruments relating to migrant
workers : 1) convention no. 97 of 1949 (c97) regarding migration for employment and 2) convention
no. 143 of 1975 (c143) regarding migration in abusive conditions and promotion of equality of
opportunity and treatment of migrant workers.
 c97= applies to the whole labour migration continuous sequence from entry to return/ covers the
conditions for recruitment of migrant workers/ the principle of their equal treatment with national
workers regarding working conditions, trade union membership and enjoyment of the benfits of
collective bargaining, accomodation, social security, employment taxes and legal proceedings
relating to matters outlined in the convention.
 C143= It is broader and adopted at a time when particular migration abuses such as the smuggling
and trafficking of migrant workers. It also imposes an obligation on states on ‘to respect the basic
human rights of all migrant workers,’
 Likewise, the united Nations adopted the international convention on the protection of the Rights of
All migrant workers and their families (ICMW) in 1990 and came into implimentation in July 2003
that covers the entire migration process. Only 27 countries have ratified the ICMW and none of them
are major receiving countries.
4. Rights based approach to women’s international labor migration for work
 The Changing landscape of labour migration :
 The decreasing significance of the state in recruiting migrant labour and the increasing of private
agents.
 The feminization of migrant labour with women migrant workers predominant in the sex sector and
domestic work which are beyond the protection of labour law.
 The increasing short term nature of labour migration.
 The considerable growth in irregular migration and the need for states to balance/control measures that
facilitate labour migration and protect migrant workers.
 The problems of Women migrant workers :
 Many Women migrant workers are often working in the unregulated low-skilled sectors such as
domestic work, child care, elder care and commercial sex work.
 This type of employment is irregular in nature and unreported by the labour laws.
 There may be involvement of criminal trafficking networks in case of sex work.
 It is seen that exploitation of migrant women due to the economic pressure of globalization.
 While the ILO and UN conventions contain specific provisions combating trafficking, they do not
instruct state parties to devote particular attention to the types of employment in which women
predominate.
 4. Rights based approach to women’s international labor migration for work
 Certain categories of workers such as seasonal workers in the ICMW are identified, but there is no
specific reference to domestic work.
 Overall, Women domestic workers and temporary and irregular labour migrants continue to suffer
abuses and malpractices at the hands of employers, a government officials and the general
population in receiving countries.
Questions for discussion :
 1. What is globalization ? Describe the negative and positive impacts of globalization on food
security from gender perspective.
 2. Describe Women migrant's role in reducing the poverty and improving socio-economic status
of households and family members.
 3. How Women’s international labour migration can be considered as rights based approach?
Discuss.
 4. What role Women play in food production and household food security? Explain with
examples.
 5. Analyze the food security situation in Nepal. Discuss Women’s and Men’s role in sustaining
household food security and nutrition in Nepal.
 6. Write the positive and negative impacts of migration on family and national livelihood
strategies.
 7. Write the global trend of migration for work from gender perspective.
 8. Analyze the effects of food price increase on food security from gender perspective.
 9. Write in brief about the armed conflict in food security from gender perspective.