Lecture 10

Process and Conversion Technologies

 What to look at………
• Electro technologies. (Batteries and Fuel
Cells).
• Common energy storage technologies.
• Engines.
Electro Chemical technologies
 Electro Chemical Cells
• Electro chemical cell is a device capable of either
deriving electrical energy from chemical reaction or
facilitating chemical reactions through introduction of
electrical energy.
• This include batteries and Fuel cells.
• Main Application for storage purposes.
• When an electrical current flows through matter,
permanent chemical changes often occur. In some
cases electrical energy supplied from an outside
source can cause a chemical to take place.
 Chemical Batteries
• In electricity, a battery is a device consisting of one or more
electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into
electrical energy.
• Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by
Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved
Daniell cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power source
for many household and industrial applications.
• Each battery consists of a negative electrode (anode) that holds
charged ions, a positive electrode (cathode) that holds discharged
ions, an electrolyte that allows ions to move from anode to cathode
during discharge (and return during recharge) and terminals that
allow current to flow out of the battery to perform work.
 Batteries
• Batteries are made from many materials including various
metals, carbon, polymers and even air.
• Batteries have received significant research and
development, because they are hoped to provide a
solution for energy storage in a transition from fossil fuels
to alternative energy, both for transport and electricity
production and for powering portable devices of all kinds.
• According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery
industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with
6% annual growth.
 Categories of Batteries
There are two types of batteries:
• Primary batteries (disposable batteries), irreversibly transform chemical
energy to electrical energy hence they are designed to be used once and
discarded. When the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy can not be
readily restored to the battery. These are most commonly used in portable
devices that have low current drain, are used only intermittently or are used
well away from an alternative power source, for example in alarm and
communication circuits where other electrical power sources are only
intermittently available.
• Secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be
recharged and used multiple times. This are used for energy storage purposes.
They have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to
the cell, approximately restoring their original composition. Devices that
supply the appropriate current are called chargers.
Some of Secondary batteries Include ..

• Lead – acid (Pb-Acid) battery.

• Nickel- Cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery.
• Nickel –Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) battery.
• Lithium ion Battery.
• High – temperature battery
 Requirements for successful Secondary
battery include….
• Economic aspects.
• Efficiency
With energy storage, lead acid batteries
are the commonly used types of
batteries.
 Reasons
• Low cost.
• Tolerant to abuse (Over charging).
• Can be discharged at very high currents.
• Can be left on trickle or float charge for prolonged
periods (ie Ups, Cars.etc).You can leave them
connected to a charger controller for
compensation of self discharge.
• Wide range of capacities are available.
• The world’s most recycled product
 Short Comings
• Very Heavy and bulky.
• Typical columbic charge efficiency is not high.
(70%).
• Not Suitable for first charging.
• Typical life Cycle is only 200 to 400 cycles
 Principle of Operation
• Battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell
consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive
electrolyte containing anions and cations.
• One half-cell includes electrolyte and the anode, the electrode
to which anions(-vely charged ions) migrate.
• The other half-cell includes electrolyte and the cathode, the
electrode to which cations(+vely charged ions) migrate.
• Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced
(electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while
anions are oxidized (electrons removed) at the anode during
discharge.
Working principle of a lead acid battery
 Battery Capacity is determined by Ah
• It is available depending on the discharge current.
• Do not forget to look at the data sheet.
• Normally it is preferred to discharge a small
current from the battery to prolong its life time
• A battery’s characteristics may vary over load
cycle and life time due to many factors including
internal chemistry, current drain and temperature.
 Hazards
• Explosion – can be caused by misuse or malfunction for example
attempting to recharge a primary battery, or a short circuit. Car batteries are
most likely to explode when a short circuit generates very large current.
• Leakage – many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If
leakage occurs, either spontaneous or through accident, the chemicals may
be dangerous.
• Toxic materials – many types of batteries employ toxic materials such as
lead, mercury and cadmium as an electrode or electrolyte. When each
battery reaches end of life it must be disposed of to prevent environmental
damage. Batteries are one form of electronic waste (e-waste) and such
waste recycling services recover toxic substances, which can be used for
new batteries.
• Ingestion – batteries may be harmful or fatal if swallowed.
 Fuel cells
• A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical
reaction.
• Every fuel cell has two electrodes, the anode and cathode
(positive and negative electrodes respectively). The reactions
which produce electricity take place at the electrodes.
• Every fuel cell has an electrolyte which carries electrically
charged particles from one electrode to the other and a
catalyst, which speeds up the reactions at the electrodes.
• These are not different from batteries.
• The difference is that they use hydrogen as the fuel.
 Fuel cells
• Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require
oxygen.
• One great appeal of fuel cells is that they generate
electricity with very little pollution – much of the
hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity
ultimately combines to form a harmless by-product,
namely water.
• A single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of DC
electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually
assembled into a stack.
 How do fuel cells work?
• The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electric current that can be
directed outside the cell to do work like powering an electric motor or
illuminating a light bulb or city, etc.
• Because of the way electricity behaves, this current returns to the fuel
cell, completing an electrical circuit.

• There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. In
general terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a
chemical reaction strips them of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are
now ionized and carry a positive charge.
• The negatively charged electrons provide the current through wires to do
work.
• If AC is needed, the DC output can be routed through an inverter.
 How fuel cells work - Continuation
• Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and in some cell
types, it combines with electrons returning from the electric
circuit and hydrogen ions that have travelled through the
electrolyte from the anode.
• In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons and then
travels through the electrolyte to the anode, where it
combines with hydrogen ions.
• Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together they
form water, which drains from the cell.
• As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen,
it will generate electricity.
A fuel cell system
 General Advantages of Fuel Cell Include…

• High Efficiency. Can go up to 58%.

• Low Emission.
• No Vibration or noise.
• Quality of electricity is high.
 The biggest Draw back is the high Upfront
cost
• A 2 KW system could go for 40,000 Euros
Current Applications
Electric Cars
Off grid power supply
 Types of Fuel Cell Include
• Low temperature fuel Cells and High temperature Fuel
Cell.
• Low temperature Fuel Cells typically use Hydrogen as fuel
where as High Temperature Fuel Cell can use other Fuels
like Methane(Hydrogen if formed within the fuel cell).
• Low Temperature Fuel Cell include Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC), Alkali fuel cells and
phosphoric acid fuel cells.
• High Temperature Fuel Cells include Solid Oxide Fuel cells
(SOFC) and Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC).
 Other storage schemes include
• Compressed air.
In this system, excess electric energy is used
to run a motor and a compressor to compress
air underground and this air is used to run a
turbine during peak day hours.
Pumped hydro.
Under this scheme, excess energy is
used to pump water to a reservoir
relatively above the power house,
which can then be used to generate
power when it is left to flow through
the turbine again.
 Engines
Classification
PV Diagram of an Engine
Ideal Situation
Real situation
Engine Parameters
 Fuel of Internal Combustion Engines

Some People are using bio diesel now!!!!!!!

Syngas is also being used

Note:
If the engine is run on different fuel, engine
modification may be required.
God Bless you