Water Supply Coverage (2000)

Water supply coverage 0%~25% 25%~50% 51%~75% 76%~90% 91%~100% Missing data

Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report (WHO and UNICEF)

Sanitation Coverage (2000)

Sanitation coverage
0%~25% 25%~50% 51%~75% 76%~90% 91%~100% Missing data

Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report (WHO and UNICEF)

Conventional Water Treatment Process

Direct Filtration Process

In-Line (or Contact) Filtration Process

Two-Stage Filtration

High-Level Complete Water Treatment Process

Applicable Raw Water Quality for the Basic Treatment Processes

Conventional Two-stage Direct In-line complete filtration filtration < 50 < 15 < 50 < 20 < 105 < 103 < 5 103 < 5 102 < 108 < 107 < 10 <3 <5 < 15 < 103 < 102 < 107 <3

filtration Turbidity (NTU) < 5,000 Color (apparent) < 3,000 Coliform (#/mL) < 107 Algae (ASU/mL) < 105 Asbestos fiber (#/mL) < 1010 Taste and odor (TON) < 30

The criteria shown are a general condition. If the raw water turbidity exceeds 1,000 NTU, a presedimentation process is required for all conventional complete treatment processes.

Alternative Separation Processes for Removal of Constituents from Water

Constituent Algae Bacteria, pathogenic Calcium Chloroform Clays Fluoride Humic acids Iron, ferrous Mercury Nitrate Phenol Salts, dissolved Sulfate Separation Processes Straining, coagulation-sedimentation, coagulation-flotation, oxidation-filtration Coagulation-sedimentation, adsorption, ultrafiltration Precipitation-sedimentation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis Adsorption, gas stripping, reverse osmosis Coagulation-sedimentation, ultrafiltration Precipitation-sedimentation, adsorption Coagulation-sedimentation, adsorption, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis Oxidation-filtration, reverse osmosis Coagulation-sedimentation, adsorption, ion exchange Ion exchange, biological reduction, reverse osmosis Oxidation, adsorption Distillation, freezing, ion exchange, reverse osmosis Ion exchange, precipitation-sedimentation

Strainer

10

Selected Physicochemical Separation Processes

Process Distillation Stripping Absorption Adsorption
Ion exchange Reverse osmosis Drying of solids

Separating Agent Heat

Noncondensible gas (e.g., air)
Nonvolatile liquid (e.g., H2O)

Principle of Separation

Examples in Water Treatment/ Reuse

Vapor pressure Phase equilibria Phase equilibria

Different in Gibbs free energy Chemical equilibria

Desalination
Removal of dissolved gases (H2S, CH4, NH3) Addition of CO2, Cl2, O3 to water

Solid adsorbent Solid exchange resin

Semipermeable membrane and pressure gradient

Removal of organics, trace metals Water softening, removal of nitrate

Diffusion
Water evaporation and diffusion Nucleation, insolubility of solid Reduction of Gibbs interfacial free energy, size

Demineralization Dewatering of sludge

Lime-soda softening, Fe and Mn removal

Heat
precipitant, pH

Precipitation Chemical oxidant, excess

Granular media filtration

Unconsolidated inert solids

Separation of clays, bacteria, algae

11

Air Stripping

12

Selected Physicochemical Separation Processes

Process Ultrafiltration Sedimentation Flotation Thickening Separating Agent Membrane and pressure Gravity Principle of Separation Molecular size Size, density Examples in Water Treatment/Reuse Organic removal Solid-liquid separation Solid-liquid separation Liquid-solids separation, e.g., alum sludge Dewatering of sludges Dewatering of sludges

Gravity, rising or attached Size, density air bubbles Gravity Size, density and structure Size, density

Centrifuge Cake filtration

Centrifugal force

Cloth or metal membrane, Size vacuum or mechanical pressure Metal screen, various size Size openings

Screening

Microstrainers for algae removal 13

Design Flowrate for Waterworks

Water treatment processes including intake facility: Qmax-day Plant hydraulic capacity: 1.25 to 1.5 Qmax-day Clearwell capacity: 0.2 Qmax-day or fire fighting capacity (local code) High service pump station: Qmax-day Water distribution reservoir (in the city): Qmax-day Notes: Qave-day = average annual daily flow rate Qmax-day = 1.5 Qave-day Qmax-hr = 1.5 to 2.0 Qmax-day Qmin-day = 0.25 Qave-day
14

Pipe Size Selection for Waterworks

Raw water main: Flocculated water line Filter influent line:
General: Polymer-fed filter influent: 2.5~3.5 fps (0.75~1.05 m/s) 3.5~4.5 fps (1.05~1.35 m/s)

6 to 7 fps (1.8 to 2.1 m/s)

Conventional treatment with rapid sand filter: 1~1.5 fps (0.3~0.45 m/s) Direct filtration or conventional with multimedia filter: 3 fps (0.9 m/s)

Filter effluent line: Filter wash water main: Wash waste main: Distribution main: Pump suction line: Pump discharge line:

5~6 fps (1.5~1.8 m/s) 5~6 fps (1.5~1.8 m/s) 6 fps (1.8 m/s) 6 fps (1.8 m/s) 4~6 fps (1.2~1.8 m/s) 7~9 fps (2.1~2.7 m/s)
15

Water Treatment Plant Design

Cost: 5 - 10% of the estimated construction cost Time: 9 - 12 mos. for design; 2 yrs for construction European & Asian practice 1. More freedom in process selection, siting, control mode. 2. Determined by the quality and adequacy of the proposal and the estimated design and construction costs. American practice 1. Complete > 80% of design before bidding. 2. Submit a complete proposal including drawings and specs. 3. More thorough predesign studies such as alternative process evaluation and site selection.
16

Selection of Consulting Engineer

Consulting Engineer: A professional who is experienced in applying scientific principles to engineering problems. Selection procedure 1. Issue a request for qualification (RFQ) 2. Select three to five firms 3. Issue a request for proposal (RFP) 4. Select the most qualified firm and a backup firm 5. Negotiate the fee and a detailed scope of work Important selection points: technical qualification, personality and administrative skills of key engineers, existing work load, experience, reputation, past accomplishment, financial stability, etc.
17

Fee Structure
1. Salary cost times a multiplier, plus other direct costs Used when the work scope cannot be defined accurately - Salary cost Payroll factor (1.3~1.4) A multiplier (2.3 - 2.5) e.g., $25/hr 1.3 2.4 = $78/hr - Other identifiable costs + 10 ~ 15% service charge Little chance of losing money
18

Fee Structure (continued)

2. Costs plus a Fixed Fee Used when the work scope cannot be defined accurately. Yet define the work scope as completely as possible. Reimbursable costs include the technical payroll and actual expenditures that are directly incurred for the project. The fixed fee includes the profit, nonallowable costs (e.g., contingencies, interest on invested capital, and availability of the consulting team), allowable costs (e.g., direct labor, direct project costs, and indirect costs incurred by the labor base) A percentage of the engineering costs - 10 ~ 25%
19

Fee Structure (continued)

3. Fixed Lump Sum Fee Used when the work scope is well defined. Estimate the work-hours required and the anticipated cost for rendering the service. The contract includes a time limit for the service and a provision for adjusting the fee. 4. Percentage of Construction Cost A variation of the fixed lump sum fee. Was popular in the past. Fee is based on the reputation of the firm and the customary percentage by the industry. Not recommended for plant expansion projects.
20

Bench Scale Studies

Objectives: 1. Optimization of chemical coagulants 2. Chemical application sequence 3. Confirmation of proper mixing conditions for flocculation 4. Estimation of hydraulic surface loading for sedimentation by measuring floc settling velocities 5. Potential trihalomethane (THM) production 6. Control of taste- and odor-producing compounds by oxidants or activated carbon The Phipps and Bird jar tester is most commonly employed. 200 work-hrs are required.
21

Bench Scale Studies

(continued)

22

Pilot Plant Studies

Necessary part of the design process due to use of nonconventional treatment processes, increasing costs of plant construction, and the emergence of new water treatment technology Costs from $100,000 to $1,000,000 Select the most appropriate type and best manufactured equipment Must be operated by highly qualified personnel for at least 6 to 12 months. Must establish study objectives, duration and cost of the experiment, availability of equipment and technical staff, and important variables of the study.
23

Pilot Plant Studies (continued)

Objectives: 1. Obtain permits for nonconventional processes. 2. Evaluate the practicability of a new treatment process. 3. Compare the effectiveness of alternative processes. 4. Obtain a guide for process design criteria, operational parameters, and operating costs. 5. Improve existing processes. 6. Investigate the cause of problems. 7. Confirm the effectiveness of the proposed treatment process. 8. Discover unforeseen problems.
24

Pilot Plant Studies (continued)

Major problems: 1. Difficulty in testing the raw water on a year-round basis 2. Use of an improper type of clay when simulating abnormal raw water conditions (high turbidity) 3. Use of raw water stored for over 1 to 2 days 4. Differences in operational conditions (pilot vs actual treatment plant) 5. Problems encountered in scale-up 6. Failure to foresee long-term effects of the new process 7. Conclusions biased by personal expectations
25

Project Control
1. Assign a job number to the project. e.g., 99-WT1 2. Prepare a contract brief, billing summary, and a budget worksheet. 3. Create project files. 4. Prepare a control schedule, including the period of activity, the budget for each activity, meeting dates for coordination, a final check date, etc. Critical Path Method (CPM), Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), Integrated Budget and Schedule Monitoring Technique (IBSM) 5. Investigate all requirements established by local, state, and federal agencies.
26

Integrated Budget and Schedule Monitoring

27

Bar Chart

While the duration of each task is easily shown, the sequence between tasks can not be easily shown. Sequence is not well shown on Bar Charts.

28

Critical Path Method (CPM)

A management tool for controlling the progress of any large project where completion on time is important. The method works by breaking down the large project into activities or tasks each with a time allocation. These activities are then logically represented on a network showing their interrelationships in a chronological fashion. As each activity has a time allocation the completed network shows the critical path of activities which must be completed on time if the whole project is not to be delayed. It is also possible to identify the earliest and latest start times for each activity if the overall project is not to be delayed.
29

Critical Path Method (CPM)

- continued

Project tasks (activities): arrows Circles at the beginning and end of activities: nodes - Pairs of nodes are used to identify each activity. Showing sequence in arrow diagrams often requires the "logic dummy." To show that Activity D precedes both Activity F and Activity G, a logic dummy will be required.

30

Line-of-Balance Method
Useful for projects where similar work is to be accomplished through a range of work areas, e.g., highways, civil works job, mid- or high-rise building projects and multi-unit housing construction.

The slopes of each of the activity lines shows the productivity of the crews as they move through each area of the project. Notice that Activity B, which has a high productivity per work area is not a continuous line. A broken line shows idle time for workers as they wait for the crew before them to finish an area.

31

Project Control (continued)

6. Organize a project team. 7. Arrange for all necessary outside services such as soil analysis and site survey. 8. Select the technical advisory committee and the value engineering team. 9. Determine the number of technical advisory meetings. 10. Prepare a memo after each meeting. 11. Encourage active input from the client and keep the client informed on the progress. 12. Review the cost of the project at the end of each month. 13. Prepare construction specifications.
32

Project Control (continued)

14. Check the completed drawings and specifications by the project engineer (red lined) and an independent checker (yellow lined). 15. Edit the bid documents and submit the preliminary drawings and specifications to the client for review. 16. Arrange an estimate for the construction costs. 17. Schedule the production of construction documents. 18. Obtain signatures from the company officer and the client. 19. Present the final drawings and specifications to the client and the appropriate governmental agency. 20. Arrange for the advertising of bids and bid openings.
33

Typical Design Team

34

Preliminary Studies
Feasibility Study 1. Planning period: 10 ~ 20 yrs 2. Water supply areas 3. Future population 4. Maximum daily water demand Average annual rate: 100 (80~130) gal per capita per day Maximum daily demand: 150% of avg. annual rate 5. Evaluation and selection of the water source River, lake, artificial reservoir, groundwater, reclaimed sewage or seawater, etc. Quantity, quality, climatic conditions, operator safety, minimal operations and maintenance costs, potential future contamination, easy intake expansion
35

Preliminary Studies
Feasibility Study - continued 6. Size of the water treatment plant As a rule of thumb, the required available site area: A (acres) Q0.6 (mgd) - One large plant vs two or three medium size plants 7. Treatment plant size Geographical location, geological information, availability of electric power and utilities, accessability to major highways, history of flooding, construction cost, site maintenance costs, provisions for future plant expansion 8. Financing Revenue bonds, general obligation bonds, special assessment bonds, state and federal aid funds, etc.
36

Breakdown of Water Treatment Plant Construction Costs (Approximate)

Notes: (1) The table does not include the overhead and profit of the contractor; these are generally 20% of the total cost shown above. (2) The above figures are based on a high-rate conventional process.

Civil work (earthwork, g Yard pipings Landscaping and irrigati Operations building (che Flocculation and sedime Filters

37

Quality and Treatability of Raw Water

Surface water: Review 5 ~ 10 yrs of physical, chemical, microbiological, and radiological characteristics of the raw water. Conduct a risk assessment for potential contamination. Assess the degree of present and future land development in the water shed. Groundwater: Consider the same factors associated with surface water. Geological conditions, water tables, the drawdown of the water table due to pumping, seawater intrusion, potential leaching of industrial wastes, domestic wastes, agricultural chemicals, and fertilizers into the groundwater.
38

Objectives for Finished Water Quality

To provide safe and aesthetically appealing water to consumers without interruption and at a reasonable cost. National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NIPDWR) - set the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs); designed to protect the public health; mandatory compliance National Interim Secondary Drinking Water Regulations Generally related to aesthetic quality of a water supply; recommended goals - Turbidity was designated as a health-related rather than an aesthetical parameter: forced many treatment facilities to construct filtration facilities - MCLs for total trihalomethanes (THMs) were proposed
39

Objectives for Finished Water Quality

(continued)

1986 Amendment and the National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) Filtered water turbidity: 0.3 NTU for 95% of the time Disinfection: 99.9% of Giardia lamblia cysts and 99.99% of enteric viruses must be removed MCLs for disinfection by-products (DBPs) MCLs for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) MCLs for synthetic organic compounds (SOCs) (pesticides, PCBs, acrylamide, epichlorohydria, styrene, etc.) and for inorganic compounds (IOCs) (nitrate, nitrite, asbestos, etc.) MCLs for corrosion by-products such as lead (0.015 mg/L) and copper (1.3 mg/L) and pH
40

Water Quality Regulatory Process Interactions.

State agency designates BENEFICIAL USES Based on data and scientific judgment Local agency withdraws water for municipal supply Federal agency develops advisory water quality CRITERIA

Federal state agencies promulgate enforceable water quality STANDARDS

Local agency selects treatment process to meet federal states

Local agency selects treated water quality GOAL

Local agency supplies water meeting enforceable STANDARDS and its own GOALS

41

Factors in Setting Water Quality Standards

Health

Political realities Technical feasibility

cost

42

Additional Goals and Objectives

Water quality goals: contaminant concentrations which a water supplier chooses to achieve in order to ensure it consistently meets regulated levels More stringent than standards Determined based on costs, benefits, and the overall philosophy or posture of a water supplier To achieve the goals, the required function of each unit process (of the treatment process train) must be identified and the objectives of each of these units should be defined. Optimize the total plant design.

43

The Current Contaminant Candidate List and Next Steps

Actions/Next Steps 2001 Decision Regulate Dont Regulate Other (Guidance)
Further Analysis

CCL
Regulatory Determination Priorities 20 contaminants Research and Occurrence Priorities 40 contaminants

Research On health 15 contaminants On treatment technologies 12 contaminants On analytical methods 15 contaminants

CCL
(2005)
9 microbiological contaminants and 42 chemical contaminants or contaminant groups

Occurrence Data Collection 34 contaminants

44

Restriction and Constrains on Plant Design

Restrictions: Due to economic, physical, chemical, temporal, climatic, geological, sociological, legal, or aesthetic considerations imposed by local, state, or federal agencies. Constrains: due to building codes, zoning laws, OSHA regulations and standards, and limited number of available components, materials, technology and qualified personnel.
45

Treatment Process Selection: Alternatives Alternatives: established by the characteristics of the raw water and the finished water quality goals; consider future implementation of more stringent EPA standards, possible changes and variability of the raw water quality, availability of major equipment, postinstallation services, capability of operators and maintenance personnel, waste handling requirements, and availability and cost of chemicals. Final Process Selection: based on reliability, constructability, ease of operation, simple maintenance, and cost.
46

 Important to establish the hydraulic grade line across the plant when selecting the site. For conventional water treatment plants, 16 ~ 17 ft of headloss is expected. For plants employing preozonation or GAC adsorption processes, 25 ft of headloss is expected. The ideal plant site will have a 3 ~ 5% one-way slope.
47

Hydraulic Grade Across the Plant

Hydraulic Grade Across the Plant

(continued)

48

Geotechnical Considerations
Information necessary to design foundations, ground characteristics, soil characteristics. - Soil pressure - Data on excavation and fill - Groundwater level - Site seismicity

49

Structural Design Conditions and Criteria

All structures must be capable of withstanding dead weight, live weight, water pressure, earth pressure, forces resulting from earthquake, vibration, wind pressure, ice pressure, etc. Min. reinforced concrete wall and slab thickness bearing water 8 in. Water/cement ratio 0.5 Compression strength: min. 4000 psi (280 kg/cm ) Allowable shrinkage rate: 0.04 - 0.05% For soil and groundwater having high sulfate, Type 2 or Type 5 cement may be considered.
50

Plant Waste Handling and Disposal

Recoverable wastes: filter wash water, supernatant of the sludge drying beds, and plant overflow - commonly collected in a holding tank and recycled to the headwork after treatment (flocculation, sedimentation, and disinfection) - the treated recoverable wastes are allowed to be discharged to a nearby water course. Nonrecoverable wastes: sludge from both the clarifiers and the filter washwaste holding tanks, sanitary and chemical wastes, and wastes produced by sludge press or ion exchanger - commonly discharged into the sewer system - gravity thickening, physical/chemical separation, heat treatment, etc.
51

Instrumentation and Control System Objectives: to provide Continuous production and supply of safe drinking water Automatic execution of corrective measures and automatic response Minimizing the potential human error Capability to quickly solve analytic problems Ability to diagnose problems in remotely located equipment before a malfunction occurs
52

Preliminary Cost Estimates

Used to select the best treatment system among the various water treatment alternatives on the basis of cost effective construction and the costs associated with plant maintenance and operation. Common method: use the cost estimation curves developed by the EPA (Estimating Water Treatment Costs, EPA 600/2-79-162b, August 1979). May be adjusted to a geographical area in the United States and to current standards through the application of a special cost index. e.g., Engineering News-Record (ENR) Construction Index and Handy-Whitman Index of Water Utility Construction Cost. Expected accuracy: +30% to -15%
53

Water Treatment Plant Construction Curves

54

(Conventional Process with a Good Raw Water Quality)

O&M Cost Estimation Curve

55

Plant Layout
Use a computer-aided design and drafting system (CADD) Basic plant layout: cluster, satellite or college campus Engineering consideration - minimization of civil work costs - ease of construction - automatic, equal hydraulic loading to each unit - centralization of control and operation - physical separation of the major unit process structures - master plan development for plant and piping layout - climatic conditions architectural design

56

Campus Plant Layout

Campus Layout

57

Campus Plant Layout continued

Campus Layout

58

Cluster Plant Layout

Clear Wells

Floc/Sed Tanks

Chemical & Control Building

Floc/Sed Tanks

Chemical & Control Building

Floc/Sed Tanks

Filters

Filters

Clear Wells

59

Process Diagram

60

 Required to file an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) prior to implementation. Must include detailed studies and an analysis of the environmental impact of the facility. Requires a team of many specialists (biologists, hydrologist, archaeologists, and economists) Should indicate no environmental impact by the proposed project Could have tremendous impact on the design, construction schedule, and total cost of the project
61

Environmental Analysis Report