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Reviewer
Chemistry
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Chemistry is the study of matter and

the changes it undergoes.

Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century

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Scientific method is a systematic approach

to research.

The Scientific Method

 Research Data

Qualitative Quantitative
Data Data

consists of general comprise of numbers

obtained by various
observations about measurements of the
the system system

The Scientific Method

 Hypothesis, Law, and Theory

Hypothesis

• is a tentative explanation for a set of observations.

Law

• is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a

relationship between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.

Theory

• is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or

those laws that are based on them.

The Scientific Method

02

Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.

Classifications of Matter
 Classifications of Matter

Substance

• is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition and

distinct properties.
• E.g. water, ammonia, table sugar or sucrose, gold and oxygen

Mixture

• is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances

retain their distinct identities.
• can be created and then separated by physical means into pure
components without changing the identities of the components.
• E.g. air, soft drinks, milk, and cement

Classifications of Matter
 Types of Pure Substances

Element

• is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler

substances by chemical means.

Compound

• is a substance composed of atoms two or more

elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
• can be separated only by chemical means into their
pure components.

Classifications of Matter
 Types of Mixture

Homogenous Mixture

• is a type of mixture in which the composition of

the mixture is the same throughout.
• E.g. spoonful of sugar dissolved in water

Heterogeneous Mixture

• is a type of mixture in which the composition is

not uniform.
• E.g. sand with iron filings

Classifications of Matter
 Classifications of Matter

Matter

Mixtures Pure Substances

separation by
physical methods

Homogenous Heterogeneous
Compounds Elements
Mixtures Mixtures

separation by
chemical methods

Classifications of Matter
 Classification of Materials
• Metals
• Non-metals
Elements • Metalloids

• Acids
Compounds
• Bases

• Suspension
• Colloid
Mixtures • Solution

Classifications of Matter
 Three States of Matter

Solid
• molecules are held close together in an orderly fashion
with little freedom of motion.

Liquid
• Molecules are close together but are not held so rigidly
in position and can move past one another.

Gas
• molecules are separated by distances that are large
compared with the size of the molecules.

The Three States of Matter

Two “OTHER” States of Matter

Plasma
• Gas that has been heated to a certain
degree allowing it to form ions and become
electrically conductive.

Bose-Einstein Condensate
• A dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons
confined in an external potential and
cooled to temperatures very near absolute
zero. “super atom”

The Three States of Matter

 Properties of Matter

Physical Property

• can be measured and observed without changing the composition or identity of a

substance.
• E.g. color, melting point, boiling point, etc.

Chemical Property

• observes chemical change, commonly carried out by burning (heat).

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

 Properties of Matter

Extensive Property

• depends on how much matter is being considered.

• E.g. mass, which is the quantity of matter in a given sample of a substance; volume,
which is defined as length cubed.

Intensive Property

• does not depend on how much matter is being considered.

• E.g. density, which is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume;
temperature also.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

02
• Macroscopic properties are properties in which
these can be determined directly.

• Microscopic properties, on the atomic or

molecular scale, must be determined by an
indirect method.

Measurement
02

In 1960, the General Conference of Weights

and Measures proposed a revised metric
system called the International System of
Units (SI).

Measurement
02 Mass

• is a measure of the amount of matter in an object.

Weight

• is the force that gravity exerts on an object.

Liter

• is the volume occupied by one cubic decimeter.

Measurement
 SI Base Units

Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electrical current ampere A

Temperature kelvin K

Amount of substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cad

Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3

Measurement
 Prefixes Used with SI Units

Prefix Symbol Meaning

tera T 1012
giga G 109

mega M 106

kilo k 103

deci d 10-1

centi c 10-2

milli m 10-3

micro μ 10-6

nano n 10-9

pico p 10-12

Measurement
Temperature Scales

Measurement
02
Any number expressed in scientific notation
is said to be written in this way,

Handling Numbers
Significant figures are the meaningful digits in a
measured or calculated quantity.

Handling Numbers
02
• Accuracy tells how close a measurement is
to the true value of the quantity that was
measured.

• Precision refers how closely two or more

measurements of the same quantity agree
with one another.

Handling Numbers
02

Democritus expressed the term,

“atomos”, which means uncuttable
or indivisible.

The Atomic Theory

02 John Dalton’s
Atomic Theory

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of
all other elements.

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any

compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
present is either an integer or a simple fraction.

4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or

rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.

The Atomic Theory

02
Joseph Proust’s
Law of Definite Proportions

It states that different samples of the same

compound always contain its constituent elements in
the same proportion by mass.

The Atomic Theory

02
Law of Multiple Proportions

Two elements can combine to form more

than one compound, the masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of
the other element are in ratios of small
whole numbers.

The Atomic Theory

02

Law of Conservation of Mass

Matter can be neither created or destroyed

The Atomic Theory

02

An atom is the basic unit of an

element that can enter into chemical
combination.

The Structure of the Atom

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Atoms are made up of even smaller particles,

which are called subatomic particles, such as
electrons, protons, and neutrons.

The Structure of the Atom

02

Radiation is the emission and

transmission of energy through space
in the form of waves.

The Structure of the Atom

When two metal plates are connected to a
high-voltage source,

Cathode

the negatively charged plate

The Structure of the Atom

02

Joseph John Thomson is a British

physicist who received the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1906 for
discovering the electron.

The Structure of the Atom

02

Robert Andrews Millikan is an

American physicist who was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1923 for determining the charge of
the electrons.

The Structure of the Atom

02

Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen is a

German physicist who received
the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1901 for the discovery of X-
rays.

The Structure of the Atom

02

Antoine Henri Becquerel is a French

physicist who was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physics 1903 for
discovering radioactivity in uranium.

The Structure of the Atom

02

Radioactivity pertains to the

spontaneous emission of particles
and/or radiation.

The Structure of the Atom

02 Radioactivity

Alpha Rays (α)

• positively charged Beta Rays (β)
• electrons
particles • deflected by the Gamma Rays (γ)
• deflected by the • high energy rays
negatively charged
positively charged
plate
plate

The Structure of the Atom

02

The positively charged particles

in the nucleus are called
protons.

The Structure of the Atom

02

James Chadwick is a British

physicist who received the Nobel
Prize in Physics for proving the
existence of neutrons.

The Structure of the Atom

02

Neutrons are electrically

neutral particles having a mass
slightly greater than that of
protons.

The Structure of the Atom

Mass and Charge of Subatomic Particles

Charge

Particle Mass (kg) Coulomb Charge Unit

Electron 9.10938 x 10-31 -1.6022 x 10-19 -1

Proton 1.67262 x 10-27 1.6022 x 10-19 +1

Neutron 1.67493 x 10-27 0 0

The Structure of the Atom

Atomic number (Z) is the number of
protons (or the number of electrons) in
the nucleus of each atom of an element.

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

The mass number (A) is the total
number of neutrons and protons
present in the nucleus of an atom of an
element.

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

02

mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

02
mass number

atomic number
accepted way to denote the atomic number
and mass number of an atom of an element (X)

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

02

Isotopes are atoms that have the same

atomic number but different mass
numbers.

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

02

Periodic table is a chart in which elements

having similar chemical and physical
properties are grouped together.

The Periodic Table

02
02
Periods

• Horizontal rows in the periodic table

Group or Families

• The vertical columns

The Periodic Table

02
 The elements can be divided
into three categories -

Metal

• is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Nonmetal

• is usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity.

Metalloid

• has properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals.

The Periodic Table

02
02
02 Alkali Metals

• The Group 1A Elements

Alkaline Earth Metals

• The Group 2A Elements

Triels or Boron Group

• Elements In Group 3A

Tetrels or Carbon Group

• Elements In Group 4A

The Periodic Table

02 Pnictogens or Nitrogen Group

• The Group 5A Elements

Chalcogens or Oxygen Group

• The Group 6A Elements

Halogens

• Elements In Group 7A

Noble/Inert Or Rare Gases

• Elements In Group 8A

The Periodic Table

02
 Properties of Elements

• Electronegativity (or electron density) -

describes the tendency of an atom or a
functional group to attract electrons

• Metallicity - proportion of a matter made up

of chemical elements other than hydrogen
and helium
 Properties of Elements

• Ionization Energy - the amount of energy needed to

remove an electron from a given kind of atom.

• Electron Affinity - the energy change when an electron

is added to the neutral atom to form a negative ion.

• Atomic Radius (covalent radius) - Half the distance

between the nuclei of two like atoms
 Properties of Elements

TOP TO BOTTOM LEFT TO RIGHT OF

OF PERIODIC PERIODIC TABLE
TABLE
Size INCREASES DECREASES
Metallicity INCREASES DECREASES
Electronegativity DECREASES INCREASES
Ionization Energy DECREASES INCREASES
Electron Affinity DECREASES INCREASES
02

An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has a

net positive or negative charge.

Molecules and Ions

 Ion

Cation

• Due to loss of one or more electrons from a neutral atom

• an ion with a net positive charge

Anion

• is an ion whose net charge is negative due to an increase in

the number of electrons.

The Structure of the Atom

02

Chemical formulas are formulas used to

express the composition of the molecules
and ionic compounds in terms of chemical
symbols.

Chemical Formulas
02

A molecular formula shows the exact

number of atoms of each element in the
smallest unit of a substance.

H2 (hydrogen) H2O (water)

Chemical Formulas
02

Acid is a substance that yields hydrogen

ions (H+) when dissolved in water.

Chemical Formulas
02

Base is a substance that yields

hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in
water.

Chemical Formulas
02

One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass

exactly equal to one –twelfth the mass of one
carbon-12 atom.

Atomic Mass
02

Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six

protons and six neutrons.

Atomic Mass
02

One atomic mass unit is also called one

dalton.

Atomic Mass
02

The mole (mol) is the amount of a

substance that contains as many elementary
entities (atoms, molecules, or other
particles).

Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element

02

Avogadro’s number (Na) was named

in honor of the Italian scientist
Amedeo Avogadro.

Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element

02

Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element

02
The molar mass (M) is defined as the mass
(in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole of units
(such as atoms or molecules) of a substance.

The units of molar mass are g/mol or

kg/mol.

Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element

02

The molecular mass (sometimes called

molecular weight) is the sum of the
atomic masses (in amu) in the molecule.

Molecular Mass
02

The percent composition by mass is the

percent by mass of each element in a
compound.

Percent Compositions of Compound

02

Percent composition is obtained by dividing

the mass of each element in 1 mole of the
compound by the molar mass of the
compound and multiplying by 100 percent.

Percent Compositions of Compound

02

Chemical reaction is a process in which a

substance (or substances) is changed into
one or more new substances.

Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

02

In writing chemical equations, “plus”

sign means “reacts with” and the
“arrow” means “to yield”.

Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

02

Limiting reagent is the reactant used up first in a

reaction.

Excess reagents are the reactants present in

quantities greater than necessary to react with the
quantity of the limiting reagent.

Limiting Reagents
02
The theoretical yield of the reaction, that is, the amount of
product that would result if the entire limiting reagent
reacted.

The theoretical yield, then, is the maximum obtainable yield,

predicted by the balanced equation.

The actual yield, or the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction, is almost always less than the theoretical
yield.

The percent yield describes the proportion of the actual yield

to the theoretical yield.

Reaction Yield
02

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two

or more substances.

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

02

The solute is the substance present in a

smaller amount.

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

02

The solvent is the substance present in a

larger amount.

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

02

Aqueous solution is a solution in which the

solute initially is a liquid or a solid and the
solvent is water.

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

02

An electrolyte is a substance that, when

dissolved in water, results in a solution that
can contain electricity.

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

02

A nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity

when dissolved.

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

02

Dissociation means breaking up of the

compound into cations and anions.

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

02
• have sour taste

Acids
• cause color changes in plant dyes (turns
litmus paper from blue to red)
• react with certain metals
• react with carbonates and bicarbonates

Bases
• have bitter taste
• fell slippery
• cause color changes in plant dyes (turns
litmus paper from red to blue)

Acid-Base Reactions
02
Neutralization reaction is a reaction
between an acid and a base.

Aqueous acid-base reactions produce water

and a salt.

Acid-Base Reactions
02

Acid-base reactions can be characterized as

proton-transfer processes.

Oxidation-reduction or redox, reactions are

considered electron-transfer reactions.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
02

Concentration of a solution is the amount

of solute present in a given quantity of
solvent or solution.

Concentration of Solutions
02

Molar (M), or molar concentration, is the

number of moles of solute per liter of
solution.

Concentration of Solutions
02

Dilution is the procedure for preparing a

lass concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one.

Concentration of Solutions