BAA Instrumentation Slides

ATPL COURSE
Vilnius 2015 m.
INTRODUCTION
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
OLEG GAIEVOI
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
The Instrumentation chapters of the course deal with the:
pressure instruments
simple and complex compass systems
gyroscopic instruments
finally modern integrated navigation and flight instrument

system
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
In each case, we are interested in:
the principles of operation
the management and use of the systems
and the implications of whole or partial system failure
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
WHY DO WE NEED THIS?
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
ATTENDANCE
Students have to attend daily classes
according to schedule
If student is late more than 10 min it is
considered absent for that day
Entrees for attendance should be made
in class journal
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
DRESS CODE
Students have to be with BAA uniform
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
LESSONS
Lessons for ATPL group are conducted
MON to FRI 10:00LT-17:00LT with 1
hour lunch break
Students can use their computers for
training purpose only
Chief Ground Instructor may join class
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS
CBT
EXAM & TESTS

Final exam could be taken if all
Progress Tests are done
INSTRUMENTATION
PRINCIPLES AND SENSORS
Principles and Sensors
INSTRUMENTATION
The Pitot Static System
An aircraft stationary on the ground will be acted on from all

directlons by ambient air pressure, called static pressure
As it starts to move through the air, it encounters wind

resistance that is in effect a pressure acting on the front of
the
aeroplane
INSTRUMENTATION
This dynamic pressure is proportional to the aircraft's speed

through the air and so it can be used to measure the speed
The formula for dynamic pressure is:
Dynamic pressure = ½ ρV^2
Where ρ (the Greek letter "rho") is the air density and V is the
TAS of the aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
Static pressure is atmospheric pressure
Dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy of the air

changed to pressure energy
INSTRUMENTATION
Any system that detected the pitot pressure acting on the

front of the aircraft, would record not only the dynamic
pressure, but also the static pressure
Pitot static systems are combination sensors that detect firstly

the total pressure, static and dynamic, also called total head
pressure or pitot pressure, and secondly the static pressure
alone
INSTRUMENTATION
The difference between the two will give us a measurement

of dynamic pressure
Total pressure = dynamic + static
Dynamic pressure = total pressure – static
This is known as Bernoulli's equation or principle and

reference to it will be constantly made in your studies
INSTRUMENTATION
Figure shows a diagram of a system using separate pitot and

static tubes to sense airspeed
INSTRUMENTATION
The holes in the static tube are arranged so as to deliberately

avoid detecting dynamic pressure
INSTRUMENTATION
The movement of the diaphragm is a function of the

difference between total pressure and static pressure and
indicates forward speed
INSTRUMENTATION
ln simple systems the two sensing heads are often combined

into a single pressure head
INSTRUMENTATION
The pressure head is mounted on a mast to move it far

enough from the aircraft skin to locate it outside the boundary
layer
INSTRUMENTATION
A heater element protects the sensor from blockage due to

icing
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors in the measurement of pitot or static pressure will bring

errors in:
Displayed speed
Height
Vertical speed
Mach number
INSTRUMENTATION
To safeguard against this, large aircraft with two pilots, will

have a more complex system to give independent feeds to
the Captain and first officer, or to the left and right air data
computers (ADC) and standby instruments
There will be selectable reserve system
INSTRUMENTATION
A typical large aircraft

system is shown
INSTRUMENTATION
Pitot/static heads are

standardised for
interchangeability and
not all the ports in all
the heads are used
INSTRUMENTATION
Note that static feeds are taken from both sides of the
aircraft, to balance static pressure when the aircraft yaws
The standby or alternate static vents are flush vents and will
probably give a less accurate static reading than the normal
They are used to supply the standby instruments and on

some aircraft can supply the main systems when the normal
static vents are blocked
INSTRUMENTATION
On some small aircraft the alternate static vents are inside

the cabin, this means that the static pressure sensed is likely
to be lower than the ambient static pressure because, on
unpressurised aircraft, the cabin pressure suffers from
aerodynamic suction and is slightly lower than ambient
INSTRUMENTATION
Static is balanced and

duplicated
Pitot is supplied
individually to CAPT,
FO and standby
instruments
INSTRUMENTATION
Pitot Static Errors
Any errors in the detected static pressure will give false

instrument indications
The sum total of this is called position error, sometimes called

pressure error
INSTRUMENTATION
Two sub-categories of position error are:

 predictable configuration error
 less predictable manoeuvre error
Pressure error includes predictable configuration error

and unpredictable manoeuvre error
INSTRUMENTATION
Configuration Error
Although static sources are sited as far as possible to be

error free, there will remain some small error, this will change
with the aircraft‘s speed and configuration:
o flaps are retracted or extended
o undercarriage is up or down
o with the angle of attack
INSTRUMENTATION
These errors will have been established in flight testing,

are known, and can be displayed on calibration cards or, in
modern systems, programmed out
INSTRUMENTATION
Standby instruments
are not fed through the
ADC, and even in
modern systems will
have uncorrected
errors
INSTRUMENTATION
Manoeuvre Error
Manoeuvres - rolling, pitching or yawing – and random gusts

will introduce transient and unpredictable static pressure
errors that cannot be programmed out
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Temperature Measurement

Two types of temperature probe are used for measuring air
temperature:
The expansion type which utilises a bimetallic strip, and
which is also referred to as a direct reading probe
The electrical wire/resistance type which relies on change
of electrical resistance with change of temperature - also
referred to as the remote reading type
INSTRUMENTATION
ln light/small aircraft the probe is normally the bimetallic type

where, a spring-like coil of bimetallic strip is fixed internally to
the probe at the temperature measuring end, and the other
end of the coil is attached to a pointer on a gauge
INSTRUMENTATION
This type of probe is sufficiently accurate for low speed

aircraft only
INSTRUMENTATION
Large aircraft systems use two different temperature

readings, analogous to static pressure and pitot pressure
These are:
• static air temperature (SAT), otherwise known as outside air
temperature (OAT)
• and total air temperature (TAT)
INSTRUMENTATION
Static air temperature is just the ordinary air temperature
Total air temperature is SAT plus the dynamic heating brought

about by the compression of the air as it is brought to rest,
also called kinetic heating or ram rise
ln the same way that total head pressure is static pressure

plus dynamic pressure, so
TAT = SAT + dynamic heating
INSTRUMENTATION
The normal procedure is to bring the air to rest and measure

TAT directly in a total head thermometer
lf the thermometer is less than 100% efficient in recording the

temperature rise it will show a lower value than the correct
TAT
This is categorised as the efficiency of the "recovery" of the

ram rise
INSTRUMENTATION
A thermometer with an 80% recovery will record SAT plus

80% of the ram rise
This must then be corrected to TAT using a calibration card.

modern systems make the correction automatically and have
near 100% recovery factors
INSTRUMENTATION
TAT can either be directly measured or be calculated from a

known SAT and aircraft speed
The temperature rise is a function only of aircraft true

airspeed (TAS)
INSTRUMENTATION
Navigation computers for high-speed aircraft have a scale

that shows this
A CRP 5 shows that at 200 KT TAS the temperature rise is

4.25˚C and at 300 KT TAS it is 9.5˚C
INSTRUMENTATION
The common formulae for computing ram rise need some

study:
TAT = SAT + (TAS/100)^2
Where TAS is in mph and temperatures in ˚C
INSTRUMENTATION
The basic statement is:
This is an approximation for low TAS values, but compares

reasonably well with the figures taken from the CRP 5 for
which the entry TAS is, conveniently, in KT
Use the CRP 5 to do calculations for simplicity. You may

still be asked to recognise the formula
INSTRUMENTATION
lf you are working the other way, computing SAT from a

measured TAT the formula changes to:
SAT = TAT – K x (TAS/100)^2
Because your measured TAT may not be correct you have to

include the recovery factor, K or KR
INSTRUMENTATION
The value of K will be given in the operating Manual for your

aircraft
Remember that, if modern systems have recovery factors of

near 100%, then K will then be 1.0 and have no effect
INSTRUMENTATION
Notice that this formula uses TAS in miles per hour, mph
lf the TAS is given in KT it will have to be converted to mph to

enter the formula, the conversion from KT to mph involves
multiplying the speed by 1.15
INSTRUMENTATION
A second formula uses Mach number (M)
TAS is a function of both M and SAT, so SAT gets into the

calculation of the ram rise
SAT (1 + 0.2M^2) + TAT
The ram rise is now SAT x 0.2M^2
INSTRUMENTATION
SAT (1 + 0.2M^2) + TAT
ln this formula the temperatures are in kelvin (K), the old ˚A

so you may have to convert the given information
To convert from ˚C to kelvin add 273˚, to convert from kelvin

to ˚C subtract 273˚
INSTRUMENTATION
Once again, if you are calculating down from a measured TAT

and have to take into account a recovery factor this must be
added to the equation thus:
SAT = TAT / (1 + 0.2 x K x M^2)
No problem with KT and mph in this equation, the speed is in

Mach number!
Do not forget that the temperatures are in kelvin
INSTRUMENTATION
Once again, if you are calculating down from a measured TAT

and have to take into account a recovery factor this must be
added to the equation thus:
SAT = TAT / (1 + 0.2 x K x M^2)
No problem with KT and mph in this equation, the speed is in

Mach number!
Do not forget that the temperatures are in kelvin
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
Given Mach number M = 0.70
Measured impact temperature = -48˚C
The recovery factor (K) of the temperature probe = 0.85
Find the OAT
Solution:
The TAT must be put into kelvin: -48˚C is 273 – 48 = 225 K
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
Find the OAT
Solution:
SAT = TAT / (1 + 0.2 x K x M^2)
= 225 / (1 + 0.2 x 0.85 x 0.70^2)
= 225 / (1 + 0.0833) = 225 / 1.0833 = 208 K
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
Find the OAT
Solution:
SAT = 208 – 273 = -65˚C
INSTRUMENTATION
At first sight, a total head thermometer looks a little like a pitot

probe
INSTRUMENTATION
The sensor inside the probe is usually a nickel wire that

changes its electrical resistance with changing temperature
The air entering the probe is brought to rest and the
temperature measured
INSTRUMENTATION
The advantage of this type of sensor is that the air data

computer can accept the signal unmodified
INSTRUMENTATION
TAT can also be shown on a gauge in the cockpit

A correction table will then be needed to give SAT
Modern equipment will apply the corrections internally and
display corrected TAT or SAT/OAT
INSTRUMENTATION
An improved type of probe, the rosemount probe, has a

heater to protect the sensor during flight in icing conditions
INSTRUMENTATION
The heating elements could affect the air temperature

reading, so the instrument is designed so that the sensing
element is isolated from the effects of the de-icing heater
during flight
INSTRUMENTATION
Boundary layer bleeds take heated intake air away from the
sensor chamber and a heat shield protects the chamber itself
INSTRUMENTATION
Air is accelerated through a venturi before being brought to

rest in the sensing chamber
INSTRUMENTATION
This means that water and dust particles are separated by

their momentum and exit the back of the probe
INSTRUMENTATION
A rosemount probe will only indicate correctly when the

aircraft is moving, because it relies on air being drawn into
the sensing chamber
INSTRUMENTATION
When stationary on the ground with the heater on, the gauge
may well go to full-scale deflection and the heated probe may
reach temperatures in excess of 300˚C
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Measurement Errors

Air temperature measurements are subject to three sources
of error:
The first, instrument error, is caused by imperfections in the
manufacturing and can be compensated for by fine
calibration of the instrument
INSTRUMENTATION

of error:
The second, environmental error, is caused by solar
heating or ice accretion
The rosemount probe incorporates a heater to remove the
icing problem but solar heating is more difficult
Probes are usually mounted on the underside of aircraft to
keep them in shadow
INSTRUMENTATION

of error:
The second, environmental error, is caused by solar
heating or ice accretion
The residual effects of environmental error cannot be
compensated for
INSTRUMENTATION

of error:
The final error, heating error, comes from two source:
Some heating is caused by the compression of the air as it is
brought to rest, which is the difference between SAT and TAT,
and is therefore only an "error” when you require to find SAT
A second source is frictional heating in the boundary layer
INSTRUMENTATION

of error:
The final error, heating error, comes from two source:
Both these errors can be fully compensated for, either
automatically or by calculation
INSTRUMENTATION
Both raw TAT and raw SAT need correcting before use,
TAT for recovery, SAT for frictional heating and both for
instrument error
INSTRUMENTATION
Flat plate sensors have, as the name suggests, the sensing

element mounted flush with the aircraft skin
The lack of shielding makes them more susceptible to
environmental errors
They are not subject to heating error because of the
compression of the air but they are affected by frictional
heating in the boundary layer
lnstrument error is still present
INSTRUMENTATION
As with the probes, heating error and instrument error can be

compensated for; environmental errors can only be minimized
by careful positioning of the sensors
Sometimes, to emphasize that all errors have been corrected,
SAT/OAT is referred to as corrected outside air temperature,
COAT
INSTRUMENTATION
All temperature sensors rely on access to ambient air, and do

not necessarily work accurately when the aircraft is stationary
or taxying
For this reason some aircraft have SAT sensors supplied with
a forced flow of ambient air so as to get the correct
temperature for engine thrust calculations for take-off
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Scales and Conversions

Temperature in aviation is normally measured using the
following scales: celsius; fahrenheit; or kelvin also known as
absolute
The fahrenheit scale is not often used in Europe but many of
the American built aircraft used for training may still have
temperature instruments using this scale
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Scales and Conversions

Celsius and fahrenheit conversions are also conveniently
provided on the CRP 5
INSTRUMENTATION
Angle of Attack Sensors

Angle of attack is conventionally called "alpha” from the
Greek letter used to designate it in aerodynamic calculations
lt is the angle between the wing chord line and the relative
airflow, and is not the same thing as pitch angle
Alpha is important when flying near the stall and in
emergencies, for alpha defines the stall in all conditions of
flight
INSTRUMENTATION
lt is also used by flight control computers and by the aircraft

data recorder
Angle of attack is the main input to stall warning

systems
Alpha sensors take two basic forms:

a vane that is free to line up with the relative airflow
or an airfoil section blade with a series of pressure
measuring holes around the leading edge
INSTRUMENTATION
Vane Sensors
Vane sensors are small airfoils that are free to rotate and line
up with the relative airflow
INSTRUMENTATION
Vane Sensors
They are positioned where they will be clear of any wash from
wings or engine pods, usually one on each side of the nose of
the aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
Vane Sensors
Their position relative to the zero alpha datum is measured by
a transponder and sent electronically to the flight systems
INSTRUMENTATION
Vane Sensors
The vane is protected against ice formation by an internal
heater element
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors to find alpha take the form of an airfoil
section blade, its chord line at aircraft zero alpha, with
sensing holes symmetrically placed above and below the
leading edge
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Sensors
This is called an airflow direction detector (ADD) probe or
conical slotted probe
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Sensors
The difference in recorded pressure between the upper and
lower sets indicates the angle of arrival of the airflow
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Sensors
lt is possible to use a pressure transducer to change this to
electronic data and calculate alpha
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Sensors
Another type uses the pressure differential to move a paddle
in a box
Paddle position is then converted to alpha electronically
INSTRUMENTATION
Accelerometers
The simple accelerometer used as a cockpit instrument to

display load factor and in some simple data recorders, is just
a weight mounted on a spring
Acceleration extends or compresses the spring and a suitable

scale records the value of the acceleration
INSTRUMENTATION
Accelerometers
lnertial navigation systems require a very accurate

measurement of acceleration
Measurements of acceleration along each of the three axes

of the system are required to an accuracy of 10^-6 of a "G”
This is one millionth of the force of earth gravity
INSTRUMENTATION
Accelerometers
The accelerometer consists of a heavy weight suspended on
a thin metal blade
INSTRUMENTATION
Accelerometers
Acceleration in one axis only will move the weight off centre
INSTRUMENTATION
Accelerometers
The weight forms the l-bar of an E and l-bar system
INSTRUMENTATION
An input signal is sent to the centre coil of the E-bar and

generates a magnetic flux through the l-bar and into the two
ends of the E-bar
INSTRUMENTATION
When the bobweight, the l-bar, is centralised the flux at the

two ends of the E-bar will be equal
INSTRUMENTATION
The output coils are wound in opposite directions so the flux

detected in each leg will cancel out the other, and there will
be no output signal
INSTRUMENTATION
When the bobweight is displaced under acceleration the flux

in the ends of the E-bar will no longer be equal and an output
signal will be generated
INSTRUMENTATION
This error signal is processed through a feedback loop and

applied to electromagnets to push the bobweight back to the
neutral position
INSTRUMENTATION
In this condition the feedback signal is a direct equivalent of

the force felt by the bobweight and is therefore a measure of
the acceleration along the input axis
INSTRUMENTATION
This type of accelerometer measures along one axis only
INSTRUMENTATION
The INS will have three of this type of accelerometer

mounted at right angles to each other
Because of the extreme accuracy of measurement available
the INS will now also provide inputs to the flight data recorder,
the autopilot and flight director system, the yaw dampers, the
autobrake system and any other system that requires
acceleration information
INSTRUMENTATION
PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
Pressure Instruments
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Instruments
INSTRUMENTATION
This chapter looks at instruments that work on air pressure:

These are:
the airspeed indicator(ASI)
the altimeter
the Machmeter
and the vertical speed indicator(VSI)
INSTRUMENTATION
Airspeed Indicators
A capsule inside a sealed case is supplied with pitot pressure
and the case itself is supplied with static pressure
INSTRUMENTATION
As the aircraft speed increases the pitot pressure will

increase and the expansion of the capsule will measure the
difference between pitot and static pressures
INSTRUMENTATION
Pitot pressure minus static pressure is dynamic pressure, so

the output from the capsule is 1/2ρV^2
The V in the equation is true airspeed, TAS
INSTRUMENTATION
The instrument assumes that the air density is the ISA mean
sea level value, 1225 g/m3 and makes allowance in the
linkage to display V and not V^2
INSTRUMENTATION
The V in the dynamic pressure

formula is
TAS
INSTRUMENTATION
The ASI only indicates TAS when the density is the ISA MSL
value
There are other errors to account for, so the reality is that the
ASI displays indicated airspeed, lAS
INSTRUMENTATION
lnstrument Displays
lAS is displayed in knots or sometimes miles per hour
Maximum operating IAS is shown by the VMO pointer
INSTRUMENTATION
ln some instruments limitations are indicated by colored arcs

on the outside edge of the scale
ASl’s on smaller aircraft use color coding as below
INSTRUMENTATION
A white arc indicates the flap operating range from the stall
speed at maximum all up mass in the landing configuration,
Vs0, up to Vfe, the maximum speed for flaps extended
INSTRUMENTATION
A green arc shows the normal operating speed range from

the stall speed at maximum all up mass clean, Vs1, up to the
normal maximum operating speed, Vno
INSTRUMENTATION
The green arc represents normal

operating speeds
INSTRUMENTATION
A yellow arc extends from Vno to the never exceed speed,

Vne, and a red line marks Vne
INSTRUMENTATION
Top of the yellow arc or the red and yellow

pointer is Vne
INSTRUMENTATION
Some light piston twins have extra lines on the ASl, a blue
line to mark the best single engine rate of climb speed, Vyse
INSTRUMENTATION
and sometimes another red line to mark the minimum control

speed in the air, Vmca
INSTRUMENTATION
Blue line is Vyse
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
Like in any instrument, inaccuracies in the construction,
friction and play in the moving parts produces instrument
error
The effect of changes in temperature extending and
contracting the linkages is countered by including a bi-
metallic strip that distorts to correct the expansion
Position or pressure errors, errors in the static pressure
reading, have to be accounted for
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
Configuration error is predictable and can be compensated
for
Manoeuvre error is unpredictable
lndicated airspeed corrected manually for both instrument
and position errors is called rectified airspeed (RAS)
Air data computers can compensate for instrument and
configuration errors, and modern synthetic airspeed
indicators display calibrated airspeed (CAS), which is
effectively the same thing as RAS
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
The ASI displays lAS, or the EFIS displays CAS, because
these are the most important speeds
The aerodynamic behaviour of the aircraft is determined by
EAS, explained below, but as the errors are small this is
effectively IAS/CAS
Ln modern aircraft, therefore, critical speeds like flap or
undercarriage limiting speeds are quoted as CAS, for that is
what you see on the EFIS
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
It is the displayed airspeed, IAS or CAS

that determines aircraft behaviour. TAS is
for navigation
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
TAS is needed for navigation and for, for example, TAT
calculations, and to find it you have to apply a density error to
CAS
We know: Dynamic pressure = ½ x ρ x V^2
so: V^2= (2 x Dynamic pressure)/ρ
This means for a given measured dynamic pressure, which
can be taken to be CAS, as the density departs from the ISA
MSL value V, TAS, change
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
lf density goes below the ISA MSL value TAS will be higher
than CAS and if density increases TAS will be lower than
CAS
Low pressure and high temperature reduce air density so at
height, and even at MSL, if the temperature is above lSA,
TAS will be higher than CAS
At MSL, if the temperature is lower than lSA, and in the rare
occurrence of flight below MSL, TAS will be lower than CAS
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
From the pressure equation:
½ x (CAS)^2 = ½ x ρ x (TAS)^2
So: CAS = sqrt(ρ) x TAS
ln words this says that CAS is TAS times the square root of
the relative density
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
At 40 000 ft, where density is 1/4 the MSL value CAS is
½TAS, or if you prefer, TAS is twice CAS
At 22 000 ft, where density is half the MSL value TAS is CAS
multiplied by the square root of two, 1.414
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
An additional complication affects the accuracy of the
instrument at high speed
ln these conditions air no longer behaves as it does at low
speeds, but as it comes to rest it becomes more compressed,
density increases, and dynamic pressure begins to rise above
the expected value
Normal calculations then produce an excessive CAS and TAS
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
This compressibility error is compensated for on the
navigation computer for TAS in excess of 300 KT and always
produces a negative correction
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
CAS/RAS corrected for compressibility, but not for density, is
called equivalent airspeed (EAS)
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
EAS is the same as or less than CAS/RAS and gives the true
value of aerodynamic forces
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
EAS is used extensively in aerodynamic calculations
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
TAS can be calculated from CAS if you know the air density
The standard method is to define the density by the air
temperature and pressure
Pressure in its turn is defined by the pressure altitude of the
aircraft, which, as you will see in the next chapter, is the
aircraft's flight level
These calculations are commonly carried out on the
navigation computer. An example of how to do this on the
CRP5 follows
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
Pressure altitude is measured from

1013.25 hPa and expressed in feet, e.g.
10 000 ft. Flight level is also based on
1013.2 hPa and is expressed to the nearest
100 ft, e.g. FL100
We will choose a pressure altitude of 40 000 ft, FL400, and

the ISA temperature for that height, -56.5˚C, for we already
expect the TAS to be twice CAS at this height
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
Set 40(000 ft) in the pressure altitude window against -56.5
(˚C SAT/OAT) on the temperature scale
This defines air density at that height
We are going to fly at 250 KT CAS at FL400, so we find 250
on the inner, rotating, scale of the computer, and opposite this
figure on the outer, fixed, scale we find a TAS of 492 KT
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
This is not the final answer!!!
The TAS is over 300 KT, so a compressibility correction has
to be made
Compressibility corrections always bring TAS and CAS closer
together, so going up from CAS, as we are now, will bring the
final TAS down a little
Compressibility corrections are not open to calculation at our
level, so we have to rely on the CRP5
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
Compressibility corrections are needed

for TAS over 300 KT
Look now at the window labeled COMP. CORR.

This is the compressibility window
The correction is made by moving the inner scale and the
arrow to the left - always to the left
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
The distance you move it is (TAS / 100) - 3 divisions in the
window
The divisions - one is labeled 35 in this view - are not all the
same size
When you have low altitude conditions set they are very small
and at high altitude they are large
We are at FL400, and in this case they are large
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
The formula means that at 300 KT TAS there would be no
movement called for
We are at 492 KT - effectively 500 KT - so we have to move
the pointer 5 - 3 = 2 divisions to the left
Always move the arrow left
TAS is reduced from 492 KT to 470 KT by the compressibility

correction, bringing CAS and TAS closer together
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
Compressibility corrections always bring
TAS and CAS closer together
ln working down from a required TAS to CAS/RAS to fly you
would again set the density on the SAT/pressure altitude
window and then read CAS on the inner scale opposite TAS
on the outer
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
If you were starting with a TAS over 300 KT you would then
apply the compressibility correction exactly as before and
read your new, corrected CAS on the inner scale opposite the
required TAS on the outer
This will be a higher figure, bringing CAS and TAS closer
together
The new, corrected, CAS is the speed to fly to achieve the
TAS you require
INSTRUMENTATION
TAS Calculations
If you were starting with a TAS over 300 KT you would then
apply the compressibility correction exactly as before and
read your new, corrected CAS on the inner scale opposite the
required TAS on the outer
This will be a higher figure, bringing CAS and TAS closer
together
The new, corrected, CAS is the speed to fly to achieve the
TAS you require
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

A little bit of thought will tell us what happens in the event of
pitot or static line blockages
Static blockage will mean the pressure in the instrument case
remains the same
As long as the external static pressure stays the same the
instrument will read correctly, so if we maintain height the ASI
reading will be right
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

lf we descend to a lower altitude the pressure in the
instrument case will be too low, the difference between
detected pitot and static pressure will be too high and the ASI
will over read
Conversely, at higher altitude the pressure in the case will be
too high, the difference will be too low and the instrument will
under read
A static blockage in the descent makes
the ASI overread, which is dangerous
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

lf the pitot line becomes blocked true changes in airspeed will
not be shown
lf the altitude remains the same indicated airspeed will remain
the same no matter whether you speed up or slow down
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

lf the airspeed is kept constant in a descent by flying a correct
combination of attitude and power, the rising static pressure
will mean the ASI reading decreases but this is entirely false
Likewise in a climb the ASI reading will increase
as the static pressure decreases
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

As the pitot line contains dynamic pressure, greater than
static, any leaks will lower the pitot pressure and cause the
instrument to under read
ln a pressurised aircraft static line leaks inside the pressure
hull will introduce cabin static pressure, which, if it is different
from true static, will usually be higher: this will make the ASI
under read
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

Pitot static blockages are insidious failures which can very
quickly lead to loss of control so be suspicious if the attitude,
power and indicated speed do not tie up
INSTRUMENTATION
Checks Before Flight
Before flight, a check should be made to ensure all covers

and plugs are removed and all vents and drain holes are
clear
The general condition of the ASI should be checked
Pitot heaters should be switched on before flight
Do not grab the pitot head to see if the

heater is working
INSTRUMENTATION
Altimeters
Pressure altimeters are designed to indicate the altitude of
the aircraft by detecting changes in the static air pressure
We consider three types:

simple altimeters
sensitive altimeters
and servoaltimeters
INSTRUMENTATION
Simple Altimeters
ln a simple altimeter static pressure is fed to the instrument
casing
INSTRUMENTATION
Simple Altimeters
A partially evacuated capsule is connected by a system of
linkages to a rotating needle on the instrument face
INSTRUMENTATION
Simple Altimeters
As the aircraft ascends static pressure decreases, the
capsule expands and the needle on the dial rotates
INSTRUMENTATION
Simple Altimeters
ln a descent, the capsule is compressed and the needle turns
the other way
INSTRUMENTATION
Simple Altimeters
A subscale setting device is included so that the instrument
can be zeroed to various datum elevations before flight
INSTRUMENTATION
The rate of fall of atmospheric pressure with height is not

constant, and all but the simplest altimeters are calibrated
to read correctly only under ISA conditions at all heights
INSTRUMENTATION
Simple Altimeters
This is done by making the linkage from capsule to display
non-linear
INSTRUMENTATION
The ASI is only calibrated to ISA MSL

density. The iltlmeter is calibrated to ISA
temperature, pressure and density at all
heights
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Error
Pressure, or position, error affects the altimeter
INSTRUMENTATION
lnstrument Error
One would expect instrument errors caused by friction and
play in the moving parts
ln addition the design means that the capsule moves very
little for small pressure changes and the instrument does not
record these well
At high altitudes, therefore, where the pressure change is
small, the simple altimeter becomes increasingly unreliable
INSTRUMENTATION
lnstrument Error
The linkages fail to transmit changes in static pressure
instantly to the dial, so there is a time lag in recording rapid
altitude changes
The capsule itself is not perfectly elastic so will distort
differently for large increases and decreases in altitude
This is called hysteresis error
INSTRUMENTATION
lnstrument Error
The elasticity of the capsule (hysteresis) depends on the
changes in temperature, more specifically the length of time
spent at different temperatures (time at altitude) and the rate
of temperature change (rate of climb/descent)
INSTRUMENTATION
Barometric Error
Any change of sea level pressure from the datum set on the
altimeter subscale, 1013 hPa in this example, will give an
incorrect altitude reading
INSTRUMENTATION
Barometric Error
This barometric error is most easily corrected by adjusting the
subscale
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Error
ln just the same way that barometric errors arise when the
atmosphere deviates from standard there can also be a
temperature error when the temperature in the air mass
differs from that of the internatlonal standard atmosphere
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Error
There are two mnemonics that may be used to remember
these effects
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Error
Firstly “high-low-high” which means that, if you fly from high
to low, either pressure or temperature, your altimeter
will read high and vice versa, low-high-low
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Error
The second mnemonic is 'high to low, careful go‘, which
implies that , if you are going from either high temperature or
pressure to low you are closer to the ground than you expect
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Error
HIGH TO LOW – LOOK BELOW
INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Error
LOW TO HIGH – CLEAR THE SKY
INSTRUMENTATION
Line Blockages and Leaks

lf the static line becomes blocked the pressure inside the
instrument cannot change and although you climb or descend
no change in altitude will be displayed
lf the static line fractures within the pressure hull then cabin
altitude will be indicated
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Settings
There are five pressure datums to which an altimeter might
be set and these are identified by ancient WW2 Q codes
QFE
This is the subscale setting that zeros the altimeter on the
airfield datum
There are two QFEs:
1)Airfield QFE is measured at the highest point of the airfield
surface and 2)Touchdown QFE is measured at the
touchdown of the runway in use for approaches
INSTRUMENTATION
QNH
This subscale setting makes the altimeter read aircraft
altitude above mean sea level (AMSL), and therefore airfield
elevation, on touchdown
It is QFE reduced to a sea level value using ISA temperature
values for the calculation
ONH and actual sea level pressure will only be the same if
the ambient conditions are, in fact, lSA
INSTRUMENTATION
QNH
Two types of QNH are available:
Airfield QNH must be set on one altimeter when departing
from an aerodrome in controlled airspace and gives an
altitude AMSL for the position of the aerodrome
Regioanl QNH, which is the lowest forecast QNH for the
next hour within one of 14 altimeter setting regions (ASRs)
in the UK FIR
INSTRUMENTATION
QNH
If the airfield is high and the temperature

radically different from ISA then at zero
indicated altitude with QNH set you will
not be at sea level
INSTRUMENTATION
QFF
ls like QNH except it uses the actual station temperature to
calculate the sea level pressure, not lSA
Meteorologists use QFF and it is the value plotted on sea
level pressure charts like the synoptic chart and the MSLP
analysis and forecast charts
INSTRUMENTATION
QNE
ls not an altimeter setting, but is the height shown at
touchdown on the altimeter with 1013 hPa set on the
subscale
This is the same as saying it is the pressure altitude of the
touchdown point
QNE may be used at very high aerodromes such as Quito
and La Paz where the QFE pressure is so low that it cannot
be set on the subscale
INSTRUMENTATION
The Standard Setting

The standard setting is 1013.2 hPa or the equivalent 29.92
inches
INSTRUMENTATION
The Standard Setting

This setting makes the altimeter read a pressure altitude or
flight level and is used for traffic in controlled airspace above
the transition level
INSTRUMENTATION
It is important to use the correct terms
INSTRUMENTATION
Sensitive Altimeters
A sensitive altimeter uses the same principles as the simple
altimeter but increases the sensitivity by having a stack of two
or more capsules, thus increasing the movement
Some sensitive altimeters have vibrators fitted to overcome
static friction, sometimes called "stiction", and further improve
the response to small altitude changes
INSTRUMENTATION
Later instruments have a digitiser pick-off to send flight level
information to the ATC transponder
INSTRUMENTATION
A more complex gearing system allows the use of three
pointers, one for tens of thousands of feet, one for thousands
and one for hundreds; some instruments use a drum or digital
display, with one pointer only, as shown
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
Servo-Assisted Altimeters
Servo assisted altimeters further increase the accuracy of the
system by no longer relying on a direct mechanical link
between the capsules and the height pointers
INSTRUMENTATION
lnstead, the movement is transmitted to a pivoted bar, the I-
bar
INSTRUMENTATION
Next to the I-bar is an E shaped bar with coils wound around
the protrusions. An AC supply is fed to the centre of the E-bar
INSTRUMENTATION
When the air gaps between the E and I bars are even the
coils on the outer limbs produce equal and opposite voltages
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
Servo assisted altimeters are accurate to 1 hPa, ~30 ft at sea
level and ~100 ft at 40 000 ft
Rates of climb and descent of up to 10 000 ft a minute can be
faithfully indicated
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument Displays
Sensitive altimeters began with 3-needle displays, but
because of the difficulty of reading these when under stress
later types, and servo assisted altimeters, have a digital and
single needle readout
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument Displays
The analogue needle gives a good indication of static
position, and a very good indication of initial departure from
the steady state and the sense or direction of the movement
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument Displays
The digital display is much easier to interpret in rapidly
changing conditions
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument Displays
On digital readouts, a black and white striped bar replaces
the left digit below 10 000 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument Displays
The majority of altimeters are calibrated in feet but some
aircraft, particularly those built in Russia, display altitude in
metres
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
Questions relating to pressure settings are frequently asked
in the JAR examinations
lf a conversion from hPa (or hPa) to feet is required and you
are not given a conversion factor, assume t hPa = 27 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
Example:
A flight is made from aerodrome A to aerodrome B at FL 40
The regional QNH is 996 hPa and the highest obstacle en
route is 2200 ft AMSL
Determine the vertical clearance from the obstacle assuming
1 hPa equals 29 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
Once the diagram is drawn it is clear that we need to know

the difference in feet between the 1013 and the 996
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
FL40 now can be seen to represent an altitude of

4000 - 493 = 3507 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
and the terrain is cleared by 3507 – 2200 = 1307 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
Example:
An aircraft is flying near an aerodrome at 2000 ft on the QFE
of 1002 hPa
A second aircraft is overflying the field at FL35
Assuming 1 hPa equals 30 ft determine the vertical
separation between the aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
Example:
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
Now what we need to know is the difference between the

QFE datum and the 1013 datum
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
11 x 30 = 330ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
So the lower aircraft is at a pressure altitude of:
2000 + 330 = 2330 ft

INSTRUMENTATION
Pressure Problems
And the vertical separation is:
3500 - 2330 = 1170 ft

INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Problems
At height the task of an altimeter is to maintain separation
between aircraft at different indicated heights
ln ISA conditions the indicated separation will be correct
At temperatures above ISA the true separatton will be greater
than indicated
At temperatures below ISA it will be less
INSTRUMENTATION
This is not a problem for pilots
The air traffic separation rules, the quadrantal and
semicircular separation systems, take account of all expected
errors
At low level calculation of height above ground will involve a
calculation to find true altitude from indicated altitude in
conditions that are not lSA
INSTRUMENTATION
First of all, if there are both barometric and temperature
errors to take into account, the convention is to calculate the
two errors separately, and calculate barometric error first
and then the temperature error
Calculate barometric error first, then

temperature error
INSTRUMENTATION
ln air temperatures that differ from ISA the altimeter error will
be approximately 4 ft per 1000 ft of height above the pressure
datum for every degree of deviation from lSA
lt is conventional to assume that if you have one reading for
ISA deviation that the same deviation will apply at all height
lt is only in temperatures below ISA that the altimeter will
overread and the error will be dangerous
INSTRUMENTATION
Therefore, temperature corrections must be applied in
temperatures of ISA minus 15°C or lower for:
DH/DA or MDH/MDA and step-down fixes
MSA and obstacle clearance
It is important to recognise that the pressure datum is the met
station elevation
QFE is the airfield pressure datum and QNH is calculated so
that airfield elevation is correctly indicated regardless of
temperature
INSTRUMENTATION
When applying the 4 ft per 1000 ft rule of thumb, therefore,
only apply it to the layer of air between the ground and the
aircraft
Ground elevation will be touchdown elevation for precision
approaches, airfield elevation for MSA and obstacle
clearance calculations
Where no airfield or station elevation is given you must
assume that the datum is mean sea level
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
You are flying at 3000 ft indicated on a QNH of 1004 hPa and
the OAT is -6C. What is your true height?
Solution:
ISA at 3000 ft would be +9C
The temperature is thus ISA minus 15C
The rule of thumb says your altimeter is overreading by
4 x 15 x 3 = 180 ft
Your true height is 2820 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
You are flying at 4000 ft on an airfield QNH of 948 hPa and
the OAT is -13C. The airfield elevation is 2000 ft. You will
cross a rnountain of 3000 ft elevation.
What will be your clearance over the obstacle?
Solution.
ISA deviation is minus 20C. Your indicated height above the
airfield datum is 2000 ft. The temperature error will be 4 x 20
x 2 = 160 ft. Your obstacle clearance will be 840 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
You are approaching an airfield, touchdown elevation 260 ft,
and surface OAT -30C. Your published decision altitude is
1065 ft.
What is your indicated decision altitude?
Solution:
Temperature is ISA minus 45C. Height above threshold is
1065 - 260 = 805 ft. Temperature error is 4 x 45 x 0.8 - 144 ft,
lndicated decision altitude is 1065 + 144 = 1209 ft.
INSTRUMENTATION
These calculations can be easily done on the navigation
computer. Set pressure altitude in the ALTITUDE window
opposite air temp, OAT, for any given height
This sets the ISA deviation
Opposite indicated altitude on the inner scale read true
altitude on the outer scale
INSTRUMENTATION
Density Altitude
The performance data of some aircraft types is referenced to
density altitude
Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for
temperature, in other words altitude in the international
standard atmosphere which gives the same air density as the
prevailing non-lSA combination of temperature and pressure
altitude
INSTRUMENTATION
Density Altitude
To calculate density altitude on the CRPS set pressure
altitude against temperature in the AIRSPEED window and
then, without moving the dial, read off the density altitude in
the DENSITY ALTITUDE window
For example, an aircraft at a pressure altitude of 10 000 ft
and with an OAT of -25"C would have a density altitude of
7600 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Density Altitude
An alternative method of calculating density altitude is by the
formula:
Density altitude = pressure altitude + (120 x ISA deviation)
For the previous example:
Density altitude = 10 000 + (120 x -20) = 7600 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Machmeters
As an aircraft's speed approaches the speed of sound the
airflow around it changes dramatically as shock waves start
to form
lf the aircraft is not designed for supersonic flight there can be
marked changes in the airflow which can induce instability,
extremes of control movement and possibly loss of control
INSTRUMENTATION
Machmeters
The onset of this area of the flight envelope, just below the
speed of sound, is frequently marked by airframe buffeting,
the Mach buffet
The speed of sound, Mach 1.0, does not remain constant, its
speed decreases with decreasing temperature
Thus it cannot be measured against TAS alone which is
dependent on IAS and air density
INSTRUMENTATION
Machmeters
The Machmeter gives the pilot an indication of their speed
relative to the speed of sound so that the dangerous areas of
the flight envelope can be avoided
At high altitudes it is usual to cruise not at an IAS but at an
indicated Mach number, often around M 0.82 to 0.87
For this reason the Mach number indications are often
incorporated in the ASl
INSTRUMENTATION
Local speed of sound

The local speed of sound, Mach 1.0, can be found by two
methods. The first, calculation, uses the formula
LSS = 38.94 x sqrt(T)
Where LSS is the local speed of sound and T is the static air
temperature in Kelvins (K)
lf you have not come across this notation before you can
convert from C to K by adding 273
Thus +4C is 277K and -273C is 0K, absolute zero
INSTRUMENTATION

Example:
At FL340 the outside air temperature is -52C. Determine the
local speed of sound
Solution:
The air temperature in K is:
(-52) + 273 = 221 K
LSS = 38.94 x sqrt(221)
= 579 KT TAS
INSTRUMENTATION

The second method involves the navigation computer
The JAR exams are angled at the Airtour CRP5 computer so
we shall use this to illustrate the method
Students using military and Jeppesen computers will use
different methods
INSTRUMENTATION

First locate the window marked air speed on the computer
Turn the inner scale around until a bold arrow marked Mach
no index becomes visible
Set the arrow against the air temperature (-52C)
On the inner scale find the number 10 (standing for Mach 1.0)
and opposite on the outer scale, which is marked TAS, read
out the local speed of sound (577 KT)
INSTRUMENTATION
Calculating Mach Number

As the Mach number is a decimal fraction of the local speed
of sound it can be calculated if the TAS and LSS are known
Mach number = TAS / LSS
INSTRUMENTATION

Example:
An aircraft is flying at 390 KT TAS at 33 000 ft OAT -48C.
Determine the Mach number.
Solution:
First find the LSS
-48C = 225A
Kelvins are also referred to as degrees absolute (A)
LSS = 38.94 x sqrt(225)
= 584 KT
INSTRUMENTATION

Example:
An aircraft is flying at 390 KT TAS at 33 000 ft OAT -48C.
Determine the Mach number.
Solution:
So:
Mach No = 390 / 584
= 0.67
INSTRUMENTATION

The problem is even easier to solve on the nav computer
Set OAT against the Mach no index in the air speed window
as before and read off the Mach number on the inner scale
against the TAS on the outer
INSTRUMENTATION
Machmeter Principle of Operation

We have already said that the local speed of sound is
dependent only on temperature so we might expect to find
temperature sensors involved with Machmeters
ln fact, this is not the case
It can be proven mathematically that the Mach number is a
function of the dynamic pressure divided by the static
pressure
INSTRUMENTATION
SPECIAL FOR RESEARCH DEPARTMENT
INSTRUMENTATION

The instrument therefore contains the elements to find
dynamic pressure
INSTRUMENTATION

and the element to find static pressure, an altitude capsule
INSTRUMENTATION
M ~ (Pitot – Static) / Static
The Machmeter is an airspeed indicator

and an altimeter interacting in the same
case
INSTRUMENTATION
Errors
The Machmeter suffers only from instrument and pressure
error
Density error and temperature errors are self-compensated
by the design of the instrument
Because instrument and pressure errors are very small,
indicated Mach number can be taken to be true Mach number
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

lf the pitot source becomes blocked the Machmeter shows
the same errors as an ASl
The Mach number will remain unchanged until static pressure
changes in a climb or descent
ln a climb the airspeed capsule will have excess static
pressure trapped so will cause the instrument to over read
Conversely in a descent it will under read
INSTRUMENTATION
Blockages and Leaks

Blocked static sources will mean that in the climb excess
static pressure is trapped in the case and the Machmeter will
under read
In a descent it will over read
lf the static line fractures inside the pressure hull the static
pressure will be too high and the instrument will under read
Likewise if the pitot line leaks the instrument will under read
INSTRUMENTATION
Mach/TAS/CAS/EAS Relationship
There are some useful diagrams that help us to remember
the relationship between TAS, EAS, CAS and Mach number
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
An aircraft climbs at constant TAS through an inversion, will
the CAS and Mach number increase or decrease?
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
An aircraft climbs at constant TAS through an inversion, will
the CAS and Mach number increase or decrease?
Solution:
CAS – decrease
Mach number - decrease
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
An aircraft descends through an isothermal layer with
constant TAS, what will happen to the CAS and Mach
number?
INSTRUMENTATION
Example:
An aircraft descends through an isothermal layer with
constant TAS, what will happen to the CAS and Mach
number?
Solution:
CAS – increase
Mach number – remains the same
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit indications
Mach number can be shown on an independent dial or can
be incorporated with the IAS indication
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit indications
The instrument shown is from a modern wide-body aircraft
and includes not only IAS and Mach number but also a
pointer which indicates the aircraft maximum speed by ADC
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit indications
The aircraft maximum speed can either be VMO, the
maximum lAS, or calculated from MMO, the limiting Mach
number and it varies with altitude
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit indications
Older instruments calculate the maximum airspeed internally
by adjusting the pointer position according to the output from
an altitude capsule
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit indications
Alternative forms of Mach number display are vertical straight
scale, digital and drum type arrangement
An air data computer will take pitot and static directly to
calculate Mach no., and then calculate absolute temperature
from TAT
This done, it calculates LSS, and then TAS, without having to
use IAS at all
The outputs are then fed to the FMS, EFIS, INS and other
systems as required
INSTRUMENTATION
Vertical Speed Indicators (VSIs)
SELF STUDY
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Data Computers

ln older aircraft all the instruments we have looked at so far
are independent, the working parts of the instrument are just
behind the dial itself
More modern aircraft feed the pitot and static lines to air data
computers which calculate the values of CAS, TAS, Mach
number, SAT and rate of climb and descent and pass the
information electronically to the instruments which are now
all servo driven
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Data Computers

All, that is, except the standby instruments, which retain their
original basic feeds
The advantage now is that the data can also be fed to the
autopilot and flight director system (APFDS), flight
management system (FMS), ATC transponder, ground
proximity warning system (GPWS), area navigation aids and
an instrument comparison system
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Data Computers

On the very latest systems, the feeds shown above going to
the pilots instruments will go to the EFIS signal generators to
be converted for electronic display
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Data Computers
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Data Computers

To provide the outputs the ADC requires inputs from a variety
of sensors, specifically:
Static pressure
Total pressure
TAT
Angle of attack
Flap and landing gear position
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Data Computers

Which it computes and corrects using stored aircraft data in
order to output:
 Pressure altitude/barometric altitude
 CAS
 TAS
 Mach Number
 SAT
 TAT
INSTRUMENTATION
Air Data Computers

On some aircraft the ADC is integrated with an inertial
reference unit to create an inertial reference unit to create an
air data inertial reference unit (ADIRU)
JAA(EASA?) only require an awareness of the system and
a broad idea of the inputs and outputs
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopes
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The name gyroscope comes from two Greek words, gyro, a

turn and skopein, to see
A gyroscope is, literally, a "turn see-er", a reference against
which you can measure how you have turned in space
To do this a gyroscope must maintain a space reference
This is the property of rigidity in space, the first and most
important of the two properties of gyroscopes
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
It is the axis of rotation of the gyroscope that defines its

orientation, and measurements of angular change are made
against that axis
Rigidity and precession are the key

properties of gyros
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
There is a series of animations in the

computer programme to help you with
gyro principles
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The second property of gyroscopes is precession

A gyroscope will maintain its reference in space unless acted
on by an external force
If a force is applied to a gyroscope it will move, and so long
as the force remains applied, it will continue to move. lt will
not, however, move as though the force were acting directly
on the gyroscope, but will precess, and act as if the force had
been applied at a point 90˚ in the direction of rotation of the
gyroscope
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Its momentum, mass times velocity, measures the resistance

of a body moving in a straight line to being pushed off course
The rigidity of a spinning gyroscope depends on its angular
momentum, which is moment of inertia times rate of rotation
Moment of inertia is itself determined by rotor mass and the
distribution of the mass near to or away from the centre of
rotation
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Concentration of the mass nearer to the circumference of

the rotor, away from the centre, gives a higher moment
of inertia
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
To repeat; the greater the moment of inertia, the greater the

rigidity and the faster the spin the greater the rigidity
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
A more rigid system will require a greater force to precess it

at any given rate
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopes are usually suspended in a system of frames,

called gimbals, which allow them freedom of movement in up
to three plane
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
A gyro must have at least one gimbal for every axis around
which you need to measure movement
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Thus a turn indicator, that measures only movement round

the yaw axis, has one gimbal, and an artificial horizon, that
measures pitch and roll, has two
At least one gimbal for every axis you

want to measure around
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
A two gimbal system is the mechanical equivalent of an

ordinary universal joint, or Hooke's joint, and can
demonstrate gimbal error
As long as the gimbals are at right angles to each other, a
constant angular rotation around the gyro in space gives a
constant rate of readout at the outer gimbal, but when they
are misaligned this relationship no longer holds
This primarily affects Dls, and is covered later
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Classification of Gyroscopes
To classify gyros, we speak of planes of freedom
The gyro itself rotates in one plane, about its spin axis
There are then two other planes that we can use to define the
gyro, both of them at right angles to the plane of rotation, and
at right angles to each other
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyros are split into four main categories
The simplest is the free or space gyroscope that is
completely free to move in all three planes in relation to its
mounting system
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The next group is of a special form of space gyro called tied
gyros
These retain freedom of movement in all three planes but
there is now an external influence controlling the direction of
the spin axis
An example of this would be the directional indicator (Dl),
where the spin axis is tied to the horizontal
This will be looked at later on
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The third group is an even more specialised type of tied gyro
where the spin axis is tied by the Earth's gravity to remain in
the Earth vertical
This is called an earth gyro, an example would be the
artificial horizon
All of these, space, tied and earth gyros, have three planes of
freedom
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The final group is distinct from the other three by having a
freedom of movement in the plane of rotation and one more
plane, at 90˚ to the first
This is called a rate gyro and can be used as a rate of turn
indicator
A developed form of rate gyro is a rate-integrating gyro, and
both have two planes of freedom
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
There exists a second form of classification of gyros by
degrees of freedom; effectively the number of axes about
which gyro displacement can be measured
lt does not count the axis of rotation of the gyro as one of
these!!!
Thus a two plane of freedom gyro is a single degree of
freedom gyro
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Alignment of Gyroscopes
Having classified gyros, we must define their orientation in
space
This is done by specifying the alignment of the axis of rotation
Thus a vertical gyro has its spin axis in the Earth vertical
A horizontal gyro has its axis in the Earth horizontal, but as
earth horizontal is a plane, not a line, this alone does not give
sufficient information to fully define the axis
For example, "a horizontal gyro with its axis aligned with true
north"
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Alignment of Gyroscopes
Earth vertical is a line, formed at the

intersection of all the vertical planes.
Earth horizontal is a plane, made up of all
the azimuth lines
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopic Wander
The rigidity of a gyro system will tend to keep the spin axis
fixed in space
Any movement away from this fixed direction is called wander
Gyro wander can be either drift or topple
These are earth references
Gyro drift occurs when the spin axis turns in the Earth
horizontal plane
Gyro topple occurs when the axis tilts in any earth vertical
plane
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopic Wander
Gyro drift occurs when the spin axis turns in the Earth
horizontal plane
Gyro topple occurs when the axis tilts in any earth vertical
plane
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopic Wander
Notice that a gyro with a vertical axis can initially only topple
and not drift
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopic Wander
There is another looser meaning of topple
Topple is also used to describe what happens when a gyro in
a gimbal system meets its mechanical limit stops and
precesses rapidly in random directions
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Real Wander
Whenever the gyro spin axis moves away from its initial
defined orientation in space the gyro is said to suffer from real
wander
Real wander can either be deliberately induced:
 by applying an external correcting force, as in alignment of
tied gyros
 be caused by imperfections in the gyroscope, unbalanced
gimbals or bearing friction
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Real Wander
A perfect gyro with no external forces acting on it will not
suffer from real wander
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
Having said that perfect gyros do not suffer from real wander
there are many occasions when they appear to,
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
always because our orientation in space has changed while
the gyro's orientation has no
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
Horizontal gyro B, at the equator with its axis aligned to the
local meridian shows no apparent drift as it is carried round
on the rotating earth
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
Horizontal gyro E at the north pole is showing an apparent
drift of the full 15˚ per hour as the Earth rotates under it
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
The apparent drift, zero at the equator and the full 15˚/hr at
the poles
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
The apparent drift is a function of latitude:
Apparent drift = 15 x Sin(latitude) degrees per hour
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
Gyro C, at the equator, began as a vertical gyro, appears to
become a horizontal gyro then becomes a vertical gyro again
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
lt is showing apparent topple at a rate of 15˚ per hour
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
Vertical gyro D at the north pole is showing no apparent
topple
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
The apparent topple , zero at the poles and the full 15˚/hr at
the equator
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
The apparent topple is also a function of latitude:
Apparent topple = 15 x Cos(latitude) degrees per hour
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
Finally, gyro A which begins as a horizontal gyro aligned with
the local meridian
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
at an intermediate latitude shows both apparent drift and
apparent topple as it is carried around on the rotating earth
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Apparent Wander
Its apparent drift is 15 x Sin(Lat) and its apparent topple is 15
x Cos(Lat) in degrees per hour
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Transport Wander
lf a gyro is aligned to north on one part of the Earth and then
moved to another, it will be out of alignment because of the
convergency between the two point
This is a form of apparent drift called transport wander
Flights north or south will produce no transport drift but will
affect the total apparent drift, as the latitude will change
Flights to the east will increase the total apparent drift (in the
northern hemisphere) and those to the west will reduce it
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The Direction Indicator

The direction indicator (Dl) is fitted on older aircraft to
supplement the heading information from the magnetic
compass
The rigidity of its gyroscope gives steadier heading
information than the compass, which is subject to turning and
acceleration errors
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The Dl uses a tied gyro with two degrees of freedom, rotating
about a horizontal axis and mounted in two gimbals, to give
freedom in pitch and roll up to about plus or minus 55˚
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

A Dl has two degrees of freedom
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
by caging the gyro - holding the axis horizontal - and

manually turning the gimbal and scale until the Dl reads the
correct heading, then uncaging
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection is levelling the gyro.

Synchronisation is making the gyro read
the correct magnetic heading
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The Dl can be electric or air driven gyro; an engine driven
pump partially evacuates the instrument case and
atmospheric air is drawn in through the outer gimbal pivot to
fine nozzles that blow on buckets on the outside of the rotor
The rotor will turn at 10 000 to 12 000 RPM
Since we wish to measure changes in azimuth, which is
change of bearing in the Earth horizontal, the rotor axis
should ideally be tied to earth horizontal
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

This is difficult, so for simplicity it is tied to aircraft horizontal
instead, and this is done by some clever design work with the
air jets
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
When the rotor is out of alignment the stream of air strikes

the buckets asymmetrically and produces a side force which
precesses to re-erect the gyro
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
As the aircraft banks in a turn, the erection system will try to

make the gyro erect to the new position in space of the
aircraft horizontal,
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
but this is not significant at the relatively small angles of bank

at which this instrument is used
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
ln straight and level flight, the gyro re-erects to what is both

earth and aircraft horizontal
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors
As aircraft instruments are necessarily imperfect friction and
imbalances will create real wander
The better the instrument the less this value will be
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors
The DI will be subject to apparent wander, both because of
the Earth's rotation and because of transport wander
ln addition to this, we introduce an adjustable correction for
earth‘s rotation, the latitude nut attached to the inner gimbal,
which is an out-of-balance force that produces a real wander
equal to and opposite in sign to the Earth's rotation error - if it
is correctly set
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Earth Rotation
We stated in the last chapter that the apparent drift due to the
Earth's rotation is:
15 x sin latitude, in degrees per hour
The latitude in this case is the latitude of the actual
position of the aircraft
lf you are dealing with a period of time with an associated
latitude change - flight north or south - then you take the
mean aircraft latitude for the period
This is one of the four errors we consider
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Latitude Nut
The latitude nut - and in early instruments it is a real nut,
screwed in and out to produce the necessary imbalance and
drift - is set to produce the opposite error to earth's rotation
Therefore the error is also 15 x sin latitude in degrees per
hour, but in this case the latitude is the figure set on the
latitude nut scale
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Latitude Nut
lt is not always the same as the aircraft's actual latitude, as it
is set by the maintenance crew, and cannot be re-set in flight
This is the second of the errors we consider
The latitude nut induces a real wander

to counter the apparent wander of earth
rotation
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Transport Wander
As the gyro is moved from one point on the Earth to another
the gyro maintains its orientation in space
The direction of true north, however, changes, and the further
you travel in an east/west sense the greater the change
Transport wander is the apparent loss of alignment caused by
east/west travel and its value is simply the convergency
between two points
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Transport Wander
Transport wander (˚) = change of longitude x sin mean
latitude
Transport wander in an easterly direction will have a different
sign from transport wander in a westerly direction
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Real Wander
Although we have noted that the latitude nut does introduce a
real wander, this is dealt with elsewhere
Under this heading we consider only gyro imperfections that
produce a known rate of wander
We have no way of calculating the value of the wander
lf it is to be taken into consideration then it is given to us in
degrees per hour, with a positive or negative change of gyro
heading
This is the fourth and last error we consider
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Total DI Error
+
Points to Watch
+
Example
Home work
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gimbal Error
The inner and outer gimbals are aligned at 90˚ to each other
when the aircraft is flying straight and level
Under these conditions there is an exact linear relationship
between the direction of the gyro axis and the heading
readout on the outer gimbal
When the aircraft is banked in a turn the gimbals are no
longer in line and as the aircraft turns the heading indication
will sometimes lead and sometimes lag the true azimuth
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gimbal Error
The effect is small at working angles of bank, and as the
wings are levelled and the gimbals line up the error
disappears
Gimbal error is ignored in the Dl
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
DI Caging and Checks

ln normal use the Dl should be caged and realigned in
straight and level flight every 10 to 15 minutes and the
system should be caged before any violent manoeuvres
Before flight, instrument condition should be checked and it
should be checked as operating in the correct sense during
turns in the taxy out
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The Artifical Horizon

The artificial horizon is the primary attitude instrument
lt uses an earth gyro, that is, a space gyro with its spin axis
maintained in the Earth vertical by a gravity device, to
indicate pitch and roll
lt has three planes of freedom and two gimbal
Simple artificial horizons have the gyroscope assembly
behind the instrument face
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The Artifical Horizon

More modern equipment is servo driven and uses attitude
information from a remote master attitude reference, or from
the lRS
The artificial horizon could be described

as having two degrees of freedom or three
planes of freedom
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

The construction of a simple air driven artificial horizon (AH)
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

The rotor with its vertical spin axis can be seen, inside the
rotor case, which is the inner gimbal, and the outer gimbal
which is connected to the instrument case
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

Air enters through the centre of the gimbal bearings, drives
the rotor by impinging on buckets on its outside edge, and
exhausts at the bottom of the rotor case
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

This gyro, in common with most air driven AHs, rotates anti-
clockwise when viewed from above
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

The rotor caselinner gimbal is connected to a guide pin that
moves in a slot to move the horizon bar up and down on the
instrument face
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

The bank angle pointer is connected to the outer gimbal,
which is free to swivel about the aircraft fore and aft axis
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

The key to pitch indication is in the position of the guide pin
relative to the horizon bar arm
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

Because the arm is pivoted at the forward end of the
instrument, as the gyro remains level and the case pitches
with the aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Air Driven Units

the horizon bar is displaced to show the aircraft symbol above
it in a climb and below it in a descent
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
Air driven artificial horizons are made pendulous, with their
centre of gravity below the suspension point, so that they
settle in their gimbals in a nearly erect position when not
working, to reduce erection time on start-up
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
Once the gyro is rotating, simple pendulosity does not help
with erection and the gyro has its spin axis tied to the Earth
vertical by a system of pendulous vanes
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
which make the gyro precess back to the vertical if it is
displaced
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
Pendulosity is only there to help before
start. After start it induces unwanted
errors
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
At the bottom of the rotor case are four air exhaust vents,
each normally half covered by a flap, a pendulous vane,
which is hinged at the top
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
When the gyro is vertical, air escapes from all four vents
equally
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
When it is displaced from the vertical, one vent will be closed
as the pendulous vane covers the vent and another will be
opened
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Gyro Erection
The now unbalanced reaction from the air vents is precessed
by 90° in the direction of rotation, to restore the spin axis to
the vertical
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
The gyro will be affected by any false indication of the
vertical, caused by lateral acceleration in turns or by aircraft
acceleration and deceleration
In a turn the erection system will try to erect the gyro to the
resultant acceleration, which in a balanced turn will be the
aircraft vertical
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
This will produce an initial roll error, which changes to pitch
error as the aircraft turns through 90°
In addition, the pendulous lower part of the gyro will try to line
up with the resultant acceleration but this effect will be
precessed through 90°, and will give an initial pitch error that
changes to roll error as the turn continues
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
The combined effect of these is that the gyro axis describes a
wobbly circle during a 360° turn, offset a few degrees from its
correct position
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
These errors and the correction system
only apply to air driven AHs
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
After 90° the error will be nose up and bank under reading
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
after 180° of turn the bank angle will be correct and the
maximum pitch up error exist
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
After 270° the pitch error has reduced but is still present but
now the bank over reads
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
lf the turn were continued onto the original heading the errors
would be zero
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
These AH erection errors are called turning errors
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
Some instruments have the vanes adjusted to keep the gyro
offset half the expected maximum turning error (typically a 2°
to 2½° offset) from the true vertical when erect, to minimise
any turning error
This correction system only works for one specified rate of
turn, usually rate 1, and one set TAS, typically 250 KT
This system is called compensation tilt
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
The pendulous vanes of the erection system are displaced by
sustained fore-and aft acceleration, for instance on take-off,
when a false nose up indication is given
Acceleration also affects the pendulous lower element of the
gyro, and this force is precessed through 90° to indicate a
bank to the right
These acceleration errors restrict the use of air driven
horizons to aeroplanes that do not accelerate particularly
quickly, for instance small Cessnas
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Erection Errors
The instruments typically are free in pitch through ±60° and in
roll through ±110°
Mechanical stops prevent movement outside these limits at
whtch point the gyro will topple
Once the gyro has toppled it will re-erect at the rate of 2° to
4° a minute
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Electrically Driven Artificial Horizons

Electrically driven artificial horizons use the same basic
principles as the air driven instruments
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

Most electric AHs rotate clockwise when viewed from above
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The gyro is still tied to the Earth vertical and held in two
gimbals
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

There are however, some fundamental differences
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

First, they are moore rigid, as the electric "squirrel cage“ rotor
can drive the rotor twice as fast, up to 22 500 RPM
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

Secondly, their erection system is electric, can be made very
fast, and can be cut out at will
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

With a fast erection system, there is no need for the Gyro to
be pendulous, although some electric AHs retain a small
degree of pendulosity
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

With little or no pendulosity, if the normal erection system is
cut out at certain values of longitudinal acceleration or lateral
acceleration then turn and acceleration errors are minimised
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Principle of Operation
The pendulous vanes of the air driven unit are replaced by
mercury tilt switches mounted on the rotor case, the inner
gimbal
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Any displacement of the gyro axis from earth vertical is
sensed by the tilt switches which make and break electrical
circuits connected to torque motors on the gimbals
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
that re-erect the system at about 5° a minute
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The pitch switch, here on top of the rotor case, senses pitch
errors, and drives the pitch torque motor, on the roll axis
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
This motor tries to roll the gyro, but precession takes over,
and the effect is transferred through 90° to correct pitch
errors
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Roll errors are detected by a second mercury switch lying at
right angles to the pitch switch and corrective signals are fed
to a roll torque motor on the pitch axis
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors due to false erection during acceleration are accepted,
as acceleration regimes are relatively short, as in a take-off
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
However, aircraft spend a long time in turns
To prevent the gyro erecting to a false datum in an extended
turn there is a roll cut-out switch fitted on the roll axis, to
disconnect the roll torque motor at bank angles in excess of
10˚
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
A development of this system dispenses with the roll cut-out
switch, but uses a pair of modified mercury switches
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
which provide power to the pitch and roll erection systems
under small accelerations, but then disconnect the power
supply under larger accelerations or bank
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
With a very rigid gyro, control systems

can be cut out and the gyro left on its own
for long periods
Electric AHs usually have complete freedom in roll, but are

restricted to about ±85˚ in pitch
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
A fast erection button is provided which supplies a higher
voltage to the torque motors, and bypasses the cut-outs, to
erect the gyro at up to 180˚ a minute
This facility should only be used on the ground or in straight
and level flight
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Servo Driven Attitude Indicators

Modern aircraft take their attitude information from the
intertial reference systems (lRS), which are free of turn and
acceleration errors, and the instrument is only a remote
indicator
This system has the advantage that the attitude signals going
to the captain's and first officer's instruments from IRS 1 and
IRS 2 can be compared errors can be detected and, if
required, a failed attitude source can be deselected
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

IRS 3 is the back-up source
ln older systems with just two inertial navigation systems
(lNS) a master attitude reference gyro, which is just a big
independent AH, is used as a back up
An independent and self-contained standby AH is always
retained, powered directly from the aircraft batteries
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

Remote artificial horizons, or attitude indicators, can also be
provided with expanded scales for pitch movements near the
horizontal
This means that very precise attitudes can be set
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

Bank indications can be at the bottom of the instrument, in
which case it is referred to as an earth pointer, or at the top, a
sky pointer
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

lnformation from other aircraft systems can also be displayed
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

This includes ILS information, radio height, airspeed and flight
directors
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The final development dispenses with the AH altogether, and
attitude information from the IRS is sent to the EFIS
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Gyros
The Turn and Slip Indicator
The turn and slip indicator is in effect two instruments in one
case, one a rate gyro to measure turn and the other an
instrument to measure slip or skid
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Gyros
Remember:
Yaw is the movement of the aircraft round its own vertical
axis
Turn is the movement about the Earth vertical axis and will
result in a change of heading
An out-of-balance yawing force into the turn is called slip
An out-of-balance yawing force out of the turn is called skid
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Gyros
A graphic illustration of turn and skid occurs when the aircraft
is turned on the ground. lt turns, but with no bank applied a
force is felt towards the outside of the turn
Thus the aircraft is turning and skidding
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Gyros
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Gyros
The turn indicator is primarily there to indicate rate of turn for
navigation purposes, but to do this should be kept orientated
to earth horizontal
Because this is difficult to achieve, it is fixed to the aircraft
and measures yaw
ln a banked turn the aircraft is turning, yawing and pitching so
the turn indicator is calibrated to take account of this and
display the correct turn rate to the pilot at specified rates
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The turn indicator is a rate gyro, with two planes of freedom
and one gimbal
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
lt may be air driven or electrically driven
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The axis of rotation is in the horizontal plane; the direction of
rotation has the top of the gyro moving away from the pilot
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
This is precessed to act on the top or bottom of the gyro,
which rotates in its single gimbal, pivoted on the aircraft fore
and aft axis and compresses or extends a spring
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
When the spring force balances the precessed force the gyro
remains tilted away from the aircraft vertical as the instrument
yaws with the aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The gimbal moves a needle that indicates the rate of turn
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Do not worry about the derivation, but remember this phrase:
The spring force produces a secondary precession equal to
and in the same direction as the yaw
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The turn indicator could be described
as having one degree of freedom or two
planes of freedom
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Gyros
The slip indicator is either a ball in a curved liquid filled tube
or a damped pendulum free to move in the same axis
ln straight balanced flight the force of gravity keeps the ball or
pendulum in the central position and no slip or skid is
indicated
Similarly in a balanced turn the combination of gravity and
centrifugal force acts through the aircraft vertical and no slip
or skid is indicate
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Gyros
If the bank angle is too great or too small the resultant force
will not be through the aircraft vertical and the ball is displace
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors
The turn indicator is mounted with the gimbal axis on the
aircraft fore-and-aft axis, and the gyro axis horizontal
ln this position the gyro measures yaw rate
lf the gyro was mounted with its axis vertical the instrument
would measure pitch rate
lt is inherent in the design of the instrument that in any yaw
condition the gyro axis will tilt, and the gyro will become
sensitive to pitch rate
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors
If the aircraft is then rapidly pitched nose up, as in a loop or
recovery from a spiral dive, this pitch input can deflect the
gyro to read maximum turn rate
This is called looping error
This pitch rate error also affects the instrument readings in
normal turns
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors
To compensate for this and for the difference between yaw
and turn rates the indicators are calibrated to show rates of
turn correctly in balanced turns for rate 1, 2 and 3 turns at
specific angles of bank and TAS
Although the indicated rate of turn will be incorrect at speeds
away from these datums the errors are not significant in
normal operation
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors
The direction of rotation of the gyro is chosen so that when
the aircraft banks into a balanced turn the gyro precesses in
the opposite roll sense to keep its axis more or less horizontal
and therefore keep it more sensitive to turn rate
lf the gyro rotated in the opposite direction it would only work
satisfactorily at very low yaw rates and small angles of bank
Note this practical reason for choosing
the direction of rotation of the gyro
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Errors
lf the air or electrical supply fails the instrument will read zera
rate of turn, as the gyro will stop
Any leaks in the system, or reductions in voltage, tend to
make the turn indicator under read
The slip indicator is not subject to any errors
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Calculation of Rate and Radius of Turn

Rates of turn are standardised:
rate one turn is 180˚ a minute or 3˚ a second
rate two turn is twice that, 360˚ a minute or 6˚ a second
and a rate three turn is three times as much, 540˚ a minute
or 9˚ a second
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The angle of bank required to achieve a given rate of turn
increases with the TAS
A useful formula to calculate the bank angle in degrees for
rate 1 turns is:
Angle of bank = TAS/10 + 7
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

To calculate the radius of turn in nautical miles use the
following
Radius of turn = TAS / (rate of turn x 60 x π)
Where π is the constant for circles, 3.142, and rate of turn is
rate 1,2,3
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Turn Coordinator
A turn coordinator is a development of a turn indicator
The gimbal is raised at the front by 30˚ and the instrument is
sensitive to both roll and yaw, and begins to indicate a turn as
soon as the roll in begins
As the yaw rate builds up the roll must be reduced to keep
the indicator on its datum, so the idea is that a smooth entry
to a turn can be achieved using only one instrument
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Turn Coordinator
The turn coordinator only indicates rate one turns accurately
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Turn Coordinator
and unfortunately can easily be confused with the artificial
horizon, particularly by a pilot under stress
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Turn Coordinator
lt normally carries a warning "no pitch information“
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Rate Integrating Gyros

The turn indicator indicates rate of turn
The rate integrating (Rl) gyro, on the other hand, indicates
the product of both the rate of turn and the time that the rate
is held for
The rate gyro indicates rotational speed - the Rl gyro
indicates rotational distance, or angular displacement
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The ordinary attitude gyro indicates angular displacement, as
bank or pitch for example, so the Rl gyro is used in special
cases where extreme accuracy of output over a small angular
movement is required
Rl gyros can be designed so that for a given angular input the
output can be ten times as much, and therefore easier to
read accurately
This is called gimbal gain
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

lt is basically a cylinder mounted with another inside it pivoted
to revolve about the YY’ axis, and inside that is the gyro, with
its spin axis at XX’
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

Any attempt to rotate the outer cylinder about the ZZ' axis
affects the gyro in the normal way, the torque will precess,
and the gyro and the inner cylinder will begin to rotate about
the YY‘ axis
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

This rotation will be opposed by the viscous drag of the liquid
that fills the space between the inner and outer cylinders
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

When the input torque is taken off, the inner cylinder stops
rotating, and the angle that it has turned through, measured
electrically, is an integral of input rate and time, that is input
angle
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The liquid in the cylinder balances the precessive torque, as
described, and allows the inner can to float in order to reduce
bearing friction
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The viscosity chosen for the liquid fixes gimbal gain
Sticky liquid equals less gain, thin liquid equals more gain
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The rate integrating gyro has two degrees

of freedom but is used to sense movement
about one axis only
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

Rate integrating gyros have one serious problem
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

Visualise what happens as an input is applied to the ZZ' axis
you will see that as the gyro itself rotates with the inner can
two things begin to happen:
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

• The axis of rotation of the gyro lines up nearer the ZZ'
axis, reducing the sensitivity of the gyro to inputs on the
ZZ' axis
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

• As the axis of rotation of the gyro changes, the gyro
begins to be sensitive to inputs on the XX' axis
This is called cross-coupling
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

To overcome these problems in INS a more advanced version
of the Rl gyro is use
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

In this type the gyro and inner can do not move
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

lnstead, when an input is applied to the ZZ’ axis the torque on
the inner can is sensed and opposed by a torque motor on
the inner can YY' axis, which keeps the alignment fixed
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

The integral of the electrical current applied to the torque
motor to generate this opposing force is then a measure of
the angular input on the ZZ' axis
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES

This feedback sensing technique is the same in principle as
that used in the accelerometer and in the servo altimeter
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Laser Gyros
The laser gyro, or ring laser gyro (RLG) is relatively new
technology and at the present time used mainly in inertial
reference systems (lRS)
Nevertheless, RLGs are now meeting the same performance
standards as conventional gyros, and will increasingly be
used in applications outside lRS
The system described here is based on the Honeywell RLG
used in the Boeing 757/767 IRS
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The Honeywell RLG uses a gas discharge laser to generate
monochromatic (single frequency - in the orange/pink band of
the visible spectrum) radiation in two directions
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Mirrors are used to reflect each beam around an enclosed
area, which produces a laser in a ring configuration
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The gas in the laser determines the basic frequency of the
Iight, but it can be changed over a small range of frequencies
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
A ring of a specific length forms a resonant cavity for the light
emission, within which the light will produce peak output at a
frequency, or wavelength, that matches the cavity length to a
whole number of wavelengths, and any change of path length
will change the frequency of the light
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
A ring of a specific length forms a resonant cavity for the light
emission, within which the light will produce peak output at a
frequency, or wavelength, that matches the cavity length to a
whole number of wavelengths, and any change of path length
will change the frequency of the light
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Angular rotation around an input axis perpendicular to the
ring plane will generate an apparent path length difference
between the clockwise (CW) and counter clockwise (CCW)
paths
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
and cause the two beams to have a frequency difference
proportional to the input rate
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
This frequency difference can be measured and converted
into a digital output signal
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The output system for measuring the angular rotation
depends on the generation of interference patterns in the light
output
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
With a semi-transparent mirror and a prism, samples of both
the CW and CCW beams are extracted, and transmitted
nearly parallel toward a palr of photo diodes
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
As in Young's and Fraunhofer's

experiments
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
When the RLG is rotated about the input axis and the
frequencies of the CW and CCW beams differ
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
the beams will sometimes combine in phase in the nearly
parallel output, to increase the intensity, and sometimes
combine out of phase to cancel each other out
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
This will produce a characteristic fringe pattern of light and
dark lines
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The distance between the fringe lines is proportional to the
frequency difference between the CW and CCW beams
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The distance between the fringe lines is proportional to the
frequency difference between the CW and CCW beams, and
therefore to input angular rate
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
As rotation continues the whole fringe pattern moves across
the output diodes, and the direction of movement and the
number of bars that cross any point indicates the input angle
change
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The photo diodes determtne the direction of movement and
count the bars
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
And the RLG, while first sensing angular rate, is giving its
final output as angular displacement about its input axis, and
is acting as a rate sensing gyro or rate sensor
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
The RLG is basically a rate gyro but is

constructed to give an output of rate
integraI
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Frequency Lock
The RLG has one major problem, that of frequency lock, or
lock-in
At very low input rates, when the frequencies of the CW and
CCW beams are very nearly the same, they shift frequency
and lock together, taking the output to zero
This is unacceptable, particularly in an lNS, which has to
have gyros with a very low threshold of detection
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Frequency Lock
The cure is called dither
The whole triangular block with the laser system is
mechanically rotated backwards and forwards around the
input axis
The amplitude of the rotation is very small, but the frequency
changes it produces keep the RLG out of the lock-in range
Since the rotation is first one way and then the other, the sum
over time is zero, and the dither does not affect the mean
output in any way
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Frequency Lock
The RLG is not a rotating mass gyro

and does not have to rotate to do its
job. Dither is there to correct a specific
problem
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
Real Wander
A change in the length of the ring, perhaps by thermal
expansion, or any bias in the discharge current on either side
of the laser will produce a change in the readout which is
equivalent to real wander in a mechanical gyro
INSTRUMENTATION
MAGNETISM AND COMPASSES
INSTRUMENTATION
There are three datums for aircraft heading:

true north which is the direction of the geographic north
pole
magnetic north which is the direction of the north magnetic
pole
and compass north which is an aircraft specific and heading
specific direction close to magnetic north but differing
because of magnetic deviation
INSTRUMENTATION
Magnetism
SELF STUDY
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
REMOTE INDICATING GYRO COMPASSES
REMOTE INDICATIONG GYRO COMPASSES
INSTRUMENTATION
We have looked at two methods of providing heading

information, the Dl and the compass
Both have significant errors, but used together they can
perform an adequate service
The next logical step is to combine the two instruments in one
to use the rigidity of the gyro to stabilise the output but to
monitor the system and prevent wander with a continuous
magnetic heading input.
INSTRUMENTATION
The first remote sensing systems were just specialised

compasses mounted out on the wing tip or in some other
location, relatively free of interference from aircraft
magnetism
The heading output was passed to a conventional vertical dial
on the instrument panel by a selsyn transmission system
The wing tip compass – the detector unit - was both
pendulous and free to rotate, and so suffered from the same
turning and acceleration errors that afflict the direct reading
compass
INSTRUMENTATION
ln modern remote reading gyrocompasses the direction of the

Earth's magnetic field is detected by a flux detector, which is
not free to rotate, and does not suffer from the same turning
and acceleration errors as a compass
The output from the detector is passed to a directional gyro,
where a feedback system keeps the gyro output continuously
synchronised to the aircraft magnetic heading
The flux detector does not rotate

so cannot be twisted by turning or
acceleration forces
INSTRUMENTATION
The Flux Detector Unit

The problem faced by the detector is that without a type of
compass it is difficult to read the direction of a steady
magnetic field
A changing magnetic field will induce an electric current in a
coil of wire, as in an ordinary car alternator, but a steady field
does nothing
The horizontal component (H) of the Earth's magnetic field is
a steady field
How do we overcome this?
INSTRUMENTATION

The problem faced by the detector is that without a type of
compass it is difficult to read the direction of a steady
magnetic field
A changing magnetic field will induce an electric current in a
coil of wire, as in an ordinary car alternator, but a steady field
does nothing
The horizontal component (H) of the Earth's magnetic field is
a steady field
How do we overcome this?
INSTRUMENTATION

The detector has three legs
INSTRUMENTATION

The detector is made of soft iron, and component H induces
a magnetic field in each leg
INSTRUMENTATION

The legs end in a "horn", that is there to collect the maximum
possible amount of H, to make the detector more sensitive
INSTRUMENTATION

We need three to solve any ambiguity about whether the
recorded direction of H is north or south, for example
INSTRUMENTATION

Figure shows a detector in the Earth's H component, with a
different proportion of the magnetic field induced in each leg,
as determined by the angle of the leg to magnetic north
INSTRUMENTATION

The detector unit is positioned in a wing tip or in the tail, as
far as possible from interference from the aircraft's own
magnetism
INSTRUMENTATION

So that the detector can remain horizontal while the aircraft
pitches and rolls within set limits, normally +25', thus reading
only component H and not an element of Z as well
INSTRUMENTATION

the detector mounting is pendulous
INSTRUMENTATION

The detector case may be filled with liquid to damp out
oscillations of the detector
INSTRUMENTATION
Measuring the Component of H in Each Leg

The legs of the detector are made up of two separate
sections, one on top of each other
INSTRUMENTATION

A primary coil around the centre section is supplied with an
alternating current, normally at 487.5 Hz
INSTRUMENTATION

of just sufficient strength to fully magnetically saturate each
soft iron leg as it reaches peak power
INSTRUMENTATION

The changing magnetic field induces a current in a secondary
pick-up coil but, because the secondary coil also lies in the
Earth's magnetic field
INSTRUMENTATION

the output from the secondary coil contains not only
information about the fluctuating magnetic fields induced by
the primary coil nut also the steady magnetic field of the
Earth
INSTRUMENTATION
Transmitting the Signal

The three stator coils then produce a magnetic field in the
centre, varying in amplitude, but with a resultant direction that
corresponds exactly in relation to the three legs, as does the
direction of the original field
INSTRUMENTATION

A rotor coil placed in the stator field will have a current
induced in it unless it remains at 90° degrees to the resultant
field
INSTRUMENTATION

Thus the rotor coil, when turned to the null position, is used to
reproduce at the remote location the exact heading of the
original field, in our case the direction of magnetic north
INSTRUMENTATION

This is called a selsyn system, short for "selfsynchronising"
INSTRUMENTATION

Because a current is induced in the rotor only when it is not
aligned with the original field the selsyn can also be regarded
as an error detector
INSTRUMENTATION

ln this case, when the rotor is not aligned with the original
field, current induced in it is sent to an amplifier where the
signal is amplified, rectified to DC, and then passed to the
precession coil of a gyro unit
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

The gyro in a remote indicattng compass is a tied gyro with
two gimbals, giving it two degrees of freedom but controlled in
both topple and drift
It is mounted on a bevel gear which is meshed with a second
bevel gear
When the gyro is precessed in azimuth the two gears rotate
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

The precession magnet is a curved permanent magnet
mounted on the top of the gyro
The precession coil is wound around the precession magnet
The DC output from the amplifier is fed to the precession coil
where it creates a magnetic field
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

The constant magnetic field created by the DC in the
precession coil will attract the precession magnet one way or
the other depending on the direction of the DC from the
amplifier
This applies a force on the spin axis of the gyro which
precesses the gyro in azimuth
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

As the gyro is precessed in azimuth it turns the bevel gear on
which it is mounted
This causes the second bevel gear to rotate which turns the
shaft
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

The null seeking rotor is mounted on the shaft and when the
null seeking rotor reaches the null position with the Earth's
magnetic field, the indicator (also turned by the shaft),
indicates the aircraft's heading
As long as the null seeking rotor remains in the null position
of the Earth‘s magnetic field, ho correction signal will be sent
via the amplifier to the precession coil
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

lf the null seeking rotor goes out of its null position, a current
(AC) is induced in the coil of the null seeking rotor, which is
passed to the amplifier to be processed and sent to the
precession coil
This system will ensure that the null seeking rotor is
constantly held in the null position with the Earth's magnetic
field, which means that the compass will always indicate the
correct magnetic heading
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

ln order to keep the gyro spin axis aligned with aircraft
horizontal, the gimbal which gives the gyro freedom in the
vertical plane (topple), is fitted with a slip ring powered with
DC
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

While the gyro spin axis is in line with aircraft horizontal, the
pick-offs in contact with the slip ring sit on insulated segments
and do not receive a current
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

lf the gyro spin axis goes out of alignment with aircraft
horizontal, the pick-offs receive a current which is passed to a
torque motor
INSTRUMENTATION
The Gyro Unit

This causes the gyro to be precessed to alignment with
aircraft horizontal
INSTRUMENTATION
The Heading Transmission

The signal selsyn, amplifier, gyro unit and main heading
reference are to be found in a large box called the master
indicator, which is located on a radio rack
The heading information must be transmitted from the master
indicator to instruments and systems where it is needed
INSTRUMENTATION

The simplest transmission system is a shaft driven by the
main shaft of the master indicator but this will only work over
short distances, over longer distances a selsyn transmission
system is used
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
The automatic synchronisation system applies a torque to the
gyro horizontal gimbal that precesses the gyro in azimuth at
aboul 2° minute
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
To indicate that this process is working correctly signals are
taken from the input to the precession system and used to
move a small flag on the front of the gyro unit
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
showing a dot when the gyro is being precessed in one
direction, and a cross when it is going in the opposite
direction
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
When the gyro is at its null position the flag should hover
between the two
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
but small movements of the aircraft usually make the system
switch regularly from dot to cross
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
and this "dot-crossing" is an indication that the system is
correctly aligned
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
For use on start-up, or when the gyro has toppled in
manoeuvre, there is a manual rapid alignment system
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
Pressing in a knob on the front of the gyro unit, marked with a
dot and cross, energises the rapid erection system for the
gyro
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
(for otherwise the gyro would precess and topple when
moved in azimuth)
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
Turning the knob then manually turns the compass card until
the dotcross position is found
INSTRUMENTATION
Synchrosation
You should always turn the knob in the direction, dot or cross,
of the indication on the dot-cross flag
INSTRUMENTATION
Use of a Dircetional Gyro

The remote indicating gyro compass may be used as a
directional gyro
This may happen when the magnetic monitoring system fails,
or it may be selected of
ln either case a flag saying DG appears on the front of the
compass, and synchronisation with a direct reading compass
or a grid reference must be done manually by using the
dot/cross knob
INSTRUMENTATION
Use of a Dircetional Gyro

Selection is done by operating a compass/DG switch on the
front of the instrument.
INSTRUMENTATION
System Errors
The remote indicating gyro compass suffers from the same
errors caused by variations in aircraft magnetism, though to a
lesser degree, and by changes in the Earth's magnetic field,
as do direct reading compasses
They must be swung periodically to establish compass
deviation
INSTRUMENTATION
System Errors
The detector is pendulous, so as to be free to remain
horizontal and detect only the H component of the Earth's
field, but its freedom is limited to 25° off the aircraft vertical
Longitudinal and lateral accelerations will tilt the detector,
introducing readings of the Z component
Bank and pitch beyond 25° will also pull the detector out of
the horizontal, with the same effects
INSTRUMENTATION
System Errors
Because of these potential errors there are various sensors
incorporated to detect pitch, bank and acceleration and when
these exceed set limits the magnetic monitoring system is
switched off
INSTRUMENTATION
System Errors
During manoeuvres and accelerations the gyro is still
available as a heading reference but subject to the usual gyro
errors of earth rate and transport wander
INSTRUMENTATION
System Errors
These errors, however, are small compared to the turning
and acceleration errors of direct reading compasses, and with
the stability of the gyro element and the relatively slow rate of
synchronisation used, they may be ignored
The gyros, Iike the Dl, are subject to gimballing error in turns;
this too may be ignored
INSTRUMENTATION
The Inertial Reference System

The IRS has to maintain a very accurate reading of true north
Although not a compass, it is used as a heading reference
The IRS computer will hold a variation map for the world and
can display both true and magnetic heading as required
ln earlier INS systems, the INS provides true heading for
mixing with and stabilising the magnetic heading input from a
detector
INSTRUMENTATION
Deviation
We already know that soft iron can be magnetised by leaving
it in a magnetic field
Hammering speeds up the process
lt should come as no surprise to us that as an aircraft is built
it becomes lightly magnetised in the direction it lies in the
Earth's field
INSTRUMENTATION
Deviation
This initial magnetism depends on where it was built, which
will affect the dip, which way the aircraft was pointing in the
factory, how much soft iron is in it and how much it was
hammered
INSTRUMENTATION
Deviation
Before the aeroplane leaves the factory it is degaussed in an
attempt to remove this magnetism
This is never totally successful so there is always some
residual magnetism that can cause compasses to deviate
INSTRUMENTATION
Deviation
The magnetic field around the compass can be distorted by a
number of factors
First there is the permanent, hard iron, magnetism in the
aircraft structure that we have just describe
Next, there could be permanent magnetism imported with
the cargo
Then there is the distortion of the Earth‘s magnetic field by
soft iron in the aircraft
finally, soft iron brought aboard with the cargo
INSTRUMENTATION
Deviation
Fortunately, most are small, and a simple correction for hard
iron magnetism in the horizontal plane will normally bring the
compass deviation inside the required limits which are ±1°
for a remote indicating gyro compass and ±3° for a direct
reading compass
INSTRUMENTATION
Reasons to Swing the Compass

The causes or error listed immediately suggest a list of
occasions when a compass should be swung to check its
accuracy. The list is:
Whenever a compass is installed or replaced
Whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt
After a maintenance period, if required by the schedule
After significant aircraft modification or repair
When carrying magnetic freight
INSTRUMENTATION
Reasons to Swing the Compass

The causes or error listed immediately suggest a list of
occasions when a compass should be swung to check its
accuracy. The list is:
When the compass has suffered significant physical shock
After a lightning strike
After a maintenance period, if required by the schedule
Long term operation at a different magnetic Latitude
After long term storage standing on the same heading
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Inertial Navigation
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The inertial navigation system is a self contained system that

can provide continuous information on the aircraft's position,
track, heading, groundspeed and, if necessary, height without
any external assistance
Most aircraft of any size will be fitted with at least two inertial
systems, the duplication is so that the information can be
compared for possible error
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Older inertial systems were not fully integrated into the

aircraft and could be purchased and fitted by an operator as
an optional extra navigation system
These are known as inertial navigation systems (lNS)
because their main function is navigation
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
More modern systems are fully integrated with other aircraft

systems, so that they provide not only navigation information,
but also attitude references
These systems are called lRUs, inertial reference units, or
sometimes lRS, inertial reference systems
In this chapter we will look at the basic principles of inertial
navigation and at two typical systems:
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
 one an older "stable platform" INS with conventional gyros

as fitted to the L1011
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
 and the other a modern "strapdown" IRU as fitted to the

Boeing 737-800
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Basic Principles
The startrng point for an inertial reference system is
acceleration
lf acceleration is known then the aircraft's speed can be
calculated
lf the speed is known the distance travelled can be calculated
The mathematical process that reduces acceleration to speed
is called integration
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Basic Principles
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Basic Principles
This means that to get speed from acceleration requires one
stage of integration, to get distance from acceleration
requires two stages
lntegration can be referered to as 'time multiplication’
ln order to sense linear acceleration the inertial system uses
mechanical inertial accelerometers
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Basic Principles
ln order to sense angular acceleration it uses rate
integrating gyros, either mechanical or, in more modern
equipment, ring laser gyros
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Basic Principles
The product of
the second
integration is
distance
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Acceleration Axes

To solve a complete navigation problem in space, we need to
know the acceleration in three axes at right angles to each
other, sometimes referred to as orthogonal axes or
collectively as a trihedron
When we come to choose our axes, two of them should
clearly be east/west and north/south and the third should be
the vertical axis
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The north/south axis is called the X axis, the east/west axis is
called the Y axis and the vertical axis the Z axis
To sense acceleration in three axes three accelerometers are
required, to sense acceleration north/south and east/west
ignoring up and down requires only two accelerometers
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Stable Platform and Strapdown Systems

The theory so far suggests that, if we know where we start
from, if we measure acceleration in three axes we will be able
to calculate where we end up
We choose to express the movement in three axes, X, Y and
Z, north/south, east/west and up and down
The problem is, how does the inertial system relate its
acceleration to these defined axes, how does it know which
direction is north and which way is up?
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

There are three solutions to this:
The first is to keep the platform on which the
accelerometers are mounted always level and aligned to
north and to measure acceleration relative to the platform.
This is called a stable platform system
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The second solution is to keep the platform level, to not
worry about keeping it aligned to north, but merely detect
how far out of alignment it is. This is called the wander
angle system
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The third solution is to not to worry about either levelling or
north alignment but just detect how far out of level and how
far out of alignment the accelerometers are at initialisation
and then monitor any changes. This is called the strapdown
system as the gyros and accelerometers are just fixed
(strapped down) to the aircraft structure
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The third solution is to not to worry about either levelling or
north alignment but just detect how far out of level and how
far out of alignment the accelerometers are at initialisation
and then monitor any changes. This is called the strapdown
system as the gyros and accelerometers are just fixed
(strapped down) to the aircraft structure
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Stable Platform INS

The stable platform INS keeps the accelerometer platform
level and aligned to true north
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Stable Platform INS

ln order to achieve this the platform is suspended in three
circular frames, called gimbal
The gimbals are driven by electrical torque motors to keep
the platform in the required position in space, keeping the X
axis aligned to true north and the platform in the local
horizontal, as the aircraft manoeuvres round it
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Keeping the Platform Level and Alligned

Temporary displacement of the platform from level and from
north alignment is sensed by three rate integrating gyros
arranged at right angles to each other
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Keeping the Platform Level and Aligned

AII three RlGs have a horizontal spin axis
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The north and east gyros sense topple and the azimuth gyro
senses drift
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

Angular movement about the north/south axis is sensed by
the north gyro, angular movement about the east/west axis
is sensed by the east gyro and angular movement about the
vertical axis is sensed by the azimuth gyro
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

When the gyros sense displacement they send instantaneous
correction signals to the torque motors and the platform is
kept level
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

As the platform is always aligned to north different gyros
sense pitch and roll depending on which way the aircraft is
pointin
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The diagram above shows the aircraft heading east
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

Arranged like this roll would be around the platform east/west
axis
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

lt would therefore be sensed by the east gyro and a signal
would be sent to the roll motor to keep the platform level
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

Pitch would be rotation around the platform north/south axis
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

It would be sensed by the north gyro which would
compensate by sending a signal to the pitch motor
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The accelerometers would not sense any movement because
there would not be any linear acceleration north/south or
east/west
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

lf the aircraft were heading north, pitch changes would be
angular acceleration about the east/ west axis, this would be
sensed by the east gyro
On intermediate headings both gyros would sense some
element of platform movement in the aircraft roll or pitch
sense
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Initial Leveling and Alignment

Alignment and levelling is done only once for each flight to
establish the datums with the aircraft stationary on the ground
Once aligned the inertial system is not re-aligned for the
remainder of the flight
When alignment is taking place the outputs from the
accelerometers and gyros are used for different purposes
than they are in flight, a separate selection is made on the
lNS, the ALIGN mode
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Initial Leveling and Alignment
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Levelling
Levelling is achieved by motoring the platform until there is no
acceleration due to gravity sensed by either accelerometer
This means that, even if the aircraft is on a slope, the
platform will be level
Levelling does not require any latitude and longitude input by
the pilot
Level is sensed using
gravity
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Alignment
Alignment is achieved by motoring the level platform until the
east gyro has no topple output
lf the aircraft is stationary on the ground the only cause of
topple would be earth rotation, if the east gyro has zero
topple output this must mean that its axis is aligned
north/south as in the previous diagram
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Alignment
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Alignment
This is checked by the INS looking at the topple output of the
north gyro, this should be equal to the Earth rate which is
15˚ x cos latitude
The INS cannot do this unless it has a latitude input from the
pilot
Alignment requires a latitude input
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Alignment
The pilot inputs the aircraft latitude and longitude at the same
time
Latitude is required for the alignment, both parameters are
required so that the IRS has the correct starting position
The alignment of the stable platform with true north is called
gyro-compassing
The aircraft must not be moved during the levelling and
alignment sequence otherwise either or both operations could
be upset
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
Once alignment is complete the INS is switched into a
different mode, the NAV mode
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
Now the gyro outputs are used to keep the platform level
and aligned and the accelerometer outputs feed through
integrators to become speed and ultimately distance
The north accelerometer output is integrated once to find
speed in the north/south sense and then a second time to get
north/south distance travelled
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
As each minute north/south is one nautical mile this can be
easily converted into change of latitude and then, knowing
where we started, a latitude
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
ln a similar way, the east accelerometer output is integrated
twice to find the east west distance, the departure
Two integrations of acceleration provide

distance
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
A nautical mile of departure is not necessarily a minute of
longitude but the departure can still be back-calculated to a
change of longitude using the formula
departure = change of longitude x cos latitude
or
change of longitude = departure x (1 / cos latitude)
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
but (1 / cos latitude) is also called the secant of the latitude
so:
change of longitude = departure x secant latitude
To find the longitude, then, the latitude must be known
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
The latitude output from the north/south integrators is fed with
the departure from the east/west integrators into a "secant
gear" to find first the change of longitude and then longitude
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
Knowing the new position and old the INS is able to calculate
the track taken in degrees true
The INS can measure the angle between platform north and
the aircraft nose, this is heading
The angle between the two, drift, is therefore also known
The groundspeed can be calculated from distance travelled
and time
There are two missing inputs
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
Knowing the new position and old the INS is able to calculate
the track taken in degrees true
The INS can measure the angle between platform north and
the aircraft nose, this is heading
The angle between the two, drift, is therefore also known
The groundspeed can be calculated from distance travelled
and time
There are two missing inputs
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
True air speed, TAS, cannot be calculated by the INS so it
must therefore be fed into the system from the air data
computer or, on older aircraft, a primitive form of ADC called
a true air speed unit, a TASU
Variation is the last input provided from a database of

variation values around the world
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
With these last two inputs in place the INS can calculate the
wind and output magnetic headings and tracks, if required
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Navigation
With these last two inputs in place the INS can calculate the
wind and output magnetic headings and tracks, if required
TAS and variation are required inputs, if

the ADC fails W/V can not be calculated
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Attitude Outputs
Although the primary function of the basic INS is navigation,
and primitive INS do only that, later systems take attitude
outputs from the INS platforms to feed into the autopilot and
flight director system (APFDS), the main attitude indicators
and the weather radar scanner stabilisation
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Controls and Indicators

The cockpit equipment consists of a mode selector unit
(MSU) and a control display unit (CDU) for each INS unit
The mode selectors are normally fitted on the roof panel, the
CDUs are within easy reach of the pilots, often on the centre
console
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The main control on the MSU is a rotary switch, which
controls the switching on of the equipment, and provides a
reversionary attitude mode if the navigation equipment fails
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The functions are as follows:
OFF Power off
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

STBY Power is on. A display test may be performed.
An automatic pre- alignment sequence begins.
Aircraft movement does not affect the system
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

ALIGN The system aligns automatically. Present
position must be inserted before the sequence
will complete. The aircraft must not be moved
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

NAV Normal navigation mode. NAV must be
selected before moving the aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

ATT Disables the navigation function of the INS and
provides pitch, roll and heading outputs to the
attitude indicators and APFDS
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

Two indicator lights are also fitted
The red battery warning light comes on when the INS battery
is being used as a power source and the voltage is below the
minimum required. The INS will shut down
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The green "READY NAV" light shows the alignment sequence
is complete and NAV may be selected
Once selected the ready light goes out
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Control Display Unit
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The main control on the CDU is the data selector swrtch that
controls the information displayed
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The terminology, which also applies to all other types of INS
or lRS
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

TK/GS True track and instantaneous groundspeed
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

HDG DA True heading and drift angle
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

XTK/TKE Distance left or right of track to 1/10 of a mile
and on the right hand display the angle between
desired track and track
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

POS Aircraft position as a lat and long to 1/10 of a
minute
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

WAY PT Latitude and longitude of the waypoint selected
on the rotary waypoint selector
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

DIS/TIME Distance and time to next waypoint
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

WIND Computed wind direction (˚T) and speed
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

DSRTK/STS Desired track and system status
With WARN illuminated shows
malfunction code followed by action code
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting up + Normal Operation –
HOME READING
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Wander Angle INS

The wander angle stable platform INS performs exactly like
the north aligned system except that, during the ALIGN
phase, the alignment of the platform is computed based on
the topple outputs from the north and east gyros and the
latitude input from the pilots
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

No attempt is made to hold the platform to a specific
alignment
Any change of alignment is detected by the azimuth gyro
Accelerations detected by the accelerometers are converted
into north/south motion (change of latitude) and east/west
motion (change of longitude)
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The disadvantage of the north aligned stable platform system
is that it cannot maintain north alignment as it crosses the
poles
As a result it has to switch to a form of dead reckoned
navigation until it emerges out the other side
A wander angle stable platform system has no such problem
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The advantage of the north orientated stable platform is that,
although the concepts are complex, the mathematics of
converting east/west and north/south acceleration is quite
simple and therefore suited to an age before computers
With the arrival of greater processing power it is not a large
task to use the RIG outputs to establish the angle between
the platform and true north
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Summary
A stable platform INS requires:

Three rate integrating gyros and
Two accelerometers
Stable platform INS measures
acceleration in a trihedron which is
free from the aircraft trihedron (pitch
roll and yaw axes
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Strapdown IRU

The logical step from the wander angle system is to not only
make no effort to align the platform with true north but also to
make no effort to keep it level
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Strapdown IRU

Rate integrating gyros are no longer needed to keep the
platform level and aligned
Instead, three ring laser gyros (rate sensing gyros) are bolted
to the structure of the aircraft to measure rates of pitch, roll
and yaw
Three orthongonally mounted accelerometers are also fixed
to the structure of the aircraft to measure acceleration along
the X, Y and Z axe
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Strapdown IRU

Collectively the accelerometers and RLGs are known as the
'computing trihedron‘
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Strapdown IRU

Because the intertial unit has no navigation inputs itself, but is
used to feed into a flight management system (FMS), the
inertial unit is called an inertial reference system (lRS) or
inertial reference unit (IRU)
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Strapdown IRU

The strapdown IRU produces a simpler mechanical solution
but a more complex computing problem, it is more suited to
the 21st century than either stable platform system
Additional advantages are that they are more reliable, more
accurate over a period of time and have a faster alignment
sequence
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
The Strapdown IRU

A strapdown IRU requires:
Three ring laser gyros (rate sensing)
Three accelerometers
A strapdown IRU measures the accelerations in a
trihedron which is fixed regarding to the aircraft
trihedron
A strapdown IRU has faster alignment and is
more accurate in time than a stable platform
system
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Initial Alignment and Levelling

Levelling and alignment are accomplished with the aircraft
station ary on the ground as before
Now it is likely that all three accelerometers will sense
gravitational acceleration but with greater computing power
this can be analysed mathematically to determine which way
is down
There is no gyro stabilised platform to level but the vertical is
noted with reference to gravity
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

Once the vertical is established changes of attitude in space
can only be coming from earth rotation
This realisation allows the IRU to determine the axis of the
Earth's rotation and calculate true north from the ring laser
gyro output
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The IRU is also capable of roughly calculating the latitude
This calculation is not accurate enough for navigation so a
manual position input is still required as part of the alignment
sequence
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
IRS Outputs and Inputs

The IRU does not even attempt to navigate, it senses
accelerations as before and integrates them into latitude and
longitude
Then it sends that data to the flight management computer
(FMC) or FMS for navigation and sends attitude, angular
rates, velocities and accelerations to the flight control
computer (FCC) and a variety of other outputs to other
aircraft systems
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The IRU provides magnetic heading and track information
to the FMC, converting true track and heading using a
variation map stored in the computer database as before
The variation map covers latitudes between 60˚S and 73˚N
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The IRU has an inertial height output, but its accuracy is
too low for height control
lt therefore takes a barometric height input, which has good
steady state accuracy, and, using this to stabilise the inertial
vertical channel, provides accurate mixed
barometric/inertial height and lag-free vertical
acceleration and velocity data
The IRU also requires TAS for wind velocity calculations
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The inertial reference system (lRS) is composed of a number
of individual inertial reference units
Large aircraft have three lRUs and smaller aircraft like the
B737 have two
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The lRUs are controlled for start-up, alignment and
monitoring by a single inertial reference mode panel (IRMP)
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The bottom half of the IRMP has two mode switches for the
two lRUs
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

For OFF, initial ALlGNment, NAVigation mode and the
reversionary ATTitude only output
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

No STBY mode is provided because there are no mechanical
gyros to spin up
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

Above the mode switches are two sets of IRU status lights
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The display at the top can be switched to show outputs from
the left or right lRU
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

The outputs that can be displayed are track/groundspeed,
present position, wind velocity, true heading and status
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

There is a keyboard for entering latitude and longitude data
during initial alignment
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION

This is also used for manually entering a heading when the
IRU is in the ATT mode and is no longer computing its own
true heading
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
The mode selector switch is moved from OFF to ALIGN
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
The detection of the vertical and alignment starts
The ON DC lights illuminate briefly as the IRS tests the power
supply
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
When alignment starts the ALIGN lights come on
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
Present position can be entered on the IRMP, but is more
usually entered through the FMS
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
The IRU compares the calculated position and the position at
which it was last shut down
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
and if these are too far out from the position the pilots entered
the ALIGN light flashes indicating an error
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
Position must now be re-entered
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
The IRS will reject incorrect latitude or
longitude
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
Once the present position is accepted and alignment is
complete the ALIGN lights go out,
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
NAV can be selected and the aircraft can be moved
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
Boeing recommend selecting NAV directly from OFF at
latitudes between 70˚S and 70˚N, the alignment is carried out
in just the same way
Above 70˚ latitude the intermediate ALIGN selection should
be used
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Setting Up
Alignment times vary with latitude:
5 minutes at the equator
10 minutes at 70˚N
and as much as 17 minutes at latitudes between 70˚ and
78˚
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Fast Realignment
During turn arounds it is best to turn the IRS off and re-align
the lRUs completely if there is time
lf time is tight, and it usually is, then a fast realignment is
recommended
When the aircraft is at the gate turn the lRUs from NAV to
ALIGN on the IRMP. The ALIGN lights will illuminate
A new gate position can be entered if required
The IRU will align within 30 seconds, the ALIGN lights will go
out and NAV can be re-selected
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Summary
Alignment normally takes 5 to 10
minutes
Position is only entered when stationary

on the ground
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
Inertial System Errors
HOME READING
INSTRUMENTATION
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
EFIS
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Electronic flight instrument systems (EFIS) replace

mechanical instruments in modern aircraft
Presentation of attitude and navigational data to the flight
crew is enhanced, the system uses modern uses colour
graphics and is fully integrated with digital computer-based
navigation systems
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
This course concentrates on the EFIS systems fitted to the

Boeing737/757/777 with mention of the Airbus differences
and is intended to give the candidate an overview of the
system
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Components
A complete EFIS installation consists of a left and right
system, one each for the Captain and first officer
Each individual system comprises the following elements:
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Components
Electronic attitude director indicator (EADI) also known as
the primary flight display (PFD)
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Components
Electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI) also known
as the navigation display (ND)
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Components
An EFIS control panel
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Components
A symbol generator (SG)
A remote light sensor unit
A third (centre) symbol generator can be incorporated so that
it may be used in the event of failure of either the right or left
unit
lf two symbol generators are used and one fails the remaining
one can supply both sides of the cockpit but the information
shown would be the same
Switching is pilot controlled
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Components
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Primary Flight Displays

An EADI or primary flight display (PFD) is an electronic
version of the familiar sky pointing attitude indicator
Flight director command bars, pitch limit symbols and a 'rising
runway' symbol can be overlaid on the basic attitude
information
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

PFD from a 737-400, note the slip ball is still mechanical
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The fast/slow scale on the left hand side of the instrument
indicates airspeed error of ±10 KT when the autothrottle
is engaged and acts as a throttle director when thrust is
manually controlled
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

An optional display uses a speed tape that shows calibrated
airspeed (CAS) from the air data computer between 45 and
420 KT
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

Overlaid on the moving speed tape are the speeds that are
important for handling and performance considerations
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The speed tape shows calibrated airspeed
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

ln addition to the maximum speed (VMO or MMO) and the
high speed buffet boundary the speed tape will show
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

with the same symbols, the minimum manoeuvre speed and
the stick shaker speed
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

Displays vary between types, but yellow
caution and red and black limits are
universal
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

Minimum flap retraction speeds are shown as a green "F", the
landing reference speed VREF as a green "R"
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

Gear and flap placard speeds are shown in red and black
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Decision Height and Radio Height

ln the Boeing737 series the set decision height can be
supplemented with a digital or dial readout of the radio
altitude
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The radio altimeter is active only below 2500 ft in modern
aircraft
Between this height and 1000 ft radio both the radio height
and decision height are shown in figures
Below 1000 ft the display automatically changes to a white
circular display graduated in 100 ft increments, with a digital
readout of the height indicated in the centre of the circle
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The decision height 'bug' is displayed in magenta at the
appropriate height
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

During descent below 1000 ft the circular scale is gradually
erased in an anti-clockwise direction
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

At decision height plus 50 ft an aural alert is initiated which
sounds at increasing rate until the selected decision height
is reached, at which point both the scale and the marker
change colour from white to amber and flash for a few
second
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

A reset button is located on the control panel which when
pressed inhibits the flashing and reverts the scale and the
marker to their original colours
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The A320 has the DH at the top right in a screen area
designated "approach capabilities". lt is in digital form,
coloured cyan (blue)
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The RA is in digital form at the bottom centre of the attitude
display and rolls with the display
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

lt is green until 100 ft of DH, when it changes to amber, and it
flashes for 3 seconds at DH
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

Both 737 and Airbus visual systems are supported by
automatic voice call outs of DH and RA during an approach
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Pitch Limit Symbols

The pitch limit "eyebrows" show the attitude to select in the
event of a wind shear go-around or in response to a GPWS
warning
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Pitch Limit Symbols

At this attitude the aircraft will be climbing just on the light
buffet, or, more accurately, the stick shaker
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Flight Mode Annunciator

The autopilot active modes are shown in green at the top of
the PFD in an area called the flight mode annunciator (FMA)
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

Armed modes wourd be white, engaged modes - green
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The left-hand symbol shows the state of the autothrottles
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The second display shows the pitch mode engaged
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

the third the roll mode engaged
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

the final one the autopilot status, either flight directors (FD)
with or without control wheel steering (CWS) or the fully
engaged mode, command (CMD)
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The FMA on the Boeing 737-800 has three autopilot and
autothrottle display positions
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The autopilot status, in this case CMD for command, is show
above the artificial horizon
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

Active, or engaged modes are shown in green, armed modes
in white
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS

The FMA will also show failure and alert messages
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
The Rising Runway

The rising runway symbol, shown in the EADI in is a green
representation of the runway and is an integral part of the
localiser deviation display
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
The Rising Runway

Full scale vertical movement of the rising runway display
represents the last 200 ft of radio altimeter height
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
The Rising Runway

Zero feet on the radio altimeter is indicated when the top of
the runway symbol rises to the base of the aircraft symbol
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
The Rising Runway

For the rising runway symbol to be displayed all of the
following criteria must be met:
A valid ILS localiser frequency must be selected
The data supplied by the radio altimeter must be valid
The radio altitude must be less than 2500 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Flight Directors
Flight director bars show where the centre of the aircraft
symbol should be placed for the required flight profile
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Flight Directors
An alternative EADI display for the 737-400 using a chevron
shaped aircraft symbol is shown in
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
EFIS Control Panel

The PFD and ND are controlled from the Captain's and first
officer's control panels
The PFD controls are minimal, allowing brightness control
and selection and resetting of the decision height
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
EFIS Control Panel

The right hand side of the panel controls the ND and the
weather radar with a mode selector to select the type of
display
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
EFIS Control Panel

Map switches vary the background information and a range
selector varies the coverage of the display
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Navigation Displays
ln all navigation displays heading information is supplied by
the appropriate inertial reference system (lRS) and the
display is automatically referenced to magnetic north when
operating between 60˚ to 65˚ south and 73˚ north
The ND or EHSI displays information in four main formats
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Full Rose Displays

Firstly, the EFIS can simulate a conventional HSI to show lLS,
VOR or NAV information, in other words FMS guidance
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Full Rose Displays

lnformation shown in this way would be called, for instance,
the 'full' ILS mode because the complete compass rose is
shown
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Full Rose Displays

Weather radar cannot be added to full rose displays but
calculated wind is shown with the arrow
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Expanded Rose Displays

Secondly, NAV, VOR and ILS
displays can be shown in the
expanded mode
The deviation bar remains but
the aircraft is positioned at the
bottom of the screen and only
the forward segment of the
compass rose is shown
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Expanded Rose Displays

Weather radar information can
be overlaid
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Plan Mode
The plan mode display is split
into two sections:
• The bottom two thirds shows a
static map orientated to true
north
• The expanded compass rose at
the top of the display shows
magnetic heading or track as
before
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Plan Mode
Weather radar information may
not be overlaid on this display
but all other MAP switches are
active
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Map Mode
Finally, a map mode shows a
plan view of flight progress laid
over a moving map orientated to
aircraft heading
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Map Mode
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Map Mode
The aircraft symbol can be at the bottom of the screen or the
centre (CTR MAP) and the line of MAP switches on the
control panel can be used to add off route navaids, named
waypoints, weather radar information, altitude constraints and
ETAs to the basic map information which shows the FMS
route and the navaids in use
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Map Mode
When the weather radar is overlaid the changing colours
indicate increasing returns
Areas of severe turbulence are shown in magenta
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Symbols and Colours

The colour coding from the PFD is carried through to the ND
with information depicted in white and the desired flight path
shown in magenta
Off track navaids would be shown in green
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Symbols and Colours

Colour coding on the EFIS can be generalised:
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Symbols and Colours

There are some 50 other symbols that are used on the EHSI
Most are self explanatory or conventional symbols from other
systems
You will become familiar with them during and after type
conversion
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Symbols and Colours

The more common ones are:
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
Remote Light Sensors

The remote light sensors respond to the ambient light
conditions on the flight deck and automatically adjust the
brightness of the EFIS displays to a suitable level
The sensors themselves are visible as grey dots at the
bottom left of frames of the EFIS screens
Manual control of screen brightness is also available to the
crew
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
EFIS Failure Warnings

EFIS failure warning flags are in amber and appear at the
point where the failed information would appear
INSTRUMENTATION
EFIS
EFIS Failure Warnings

The EHSI display follows the same system - warnings
displayed in amber at the point where the failed data would
be
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autoflight
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots are a feature of all large aircraft

You will spend most of your flying career monitoring autopilot
and flight management system (FMS) operation rather than
physically flying the aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
The APFDS consists of:

The autopilot
The FD system
The A/T
Yaw damper
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
Early autopilots used a gyroscopic reference to control
aircraft roll and pitch attitude, these are still quoted as the
basic autopilot functions
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
There is a well known legend that has an early pioneer of
autoflight crashing while attempting membership of the mile
high club in the aircraft cabin with such an autopilot
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
There is a well known legend that has an early pioneer of
autoflight crashing while attempting membership of the mile
high club in the aircraft cabin with such an autopilot
BRISTOL , ARE YOU OK???!
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
Attitude alone is not enough to determine aircraft
performance, you need control in pitch, roll and possibly yaw
The basic functions of an autopilot are pitch and roll attitude
hold; i.e. stability
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
Autopilots are classified by the number of axes they operate:
Single axis. This system controls roll only
Two axis. This system controls roll and pitch. Two axis
systems can normally capture and hold a heading or an
altitude. The pilot remains responsible for power and trim. A
light aircraft approved for IFR flight might use this system
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
Autopilots are classified by the number of axes they operate:
Three axis. This is the system found in all modern jet
transports. The aircraft is controlled in roll, pitch and yaw.
With the addition of the appropriate sub-systems full power
management and stability augmentation is available
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
A full three axis system will have the following operating
modes:
Heading, altitude and vertical speed capture and hold
IAS or Mach hold
Coupling to VOR track and to ILS localiser and glidepath
Coupling to FMS horizontal and vertical profiles
Autoland - for some aircraft only
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
Surprisingly, there is no single EASA regulation that requires
aircraft to have an autopilot fitted
CS 25.1329 and others lay down the way an autopilot must
operate if fitted and it is clear that certain operations cannot
be carried out without one
Reduced vertical separation minima, ETOPS and CAT ll and
mode approaches are examples
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilots
The only mandatory requirement for fit is that a two-axis
autopilot with altitude and heading hold is required for single
pilot operations in IFR (EU-OPS 1.655)
ln summary, you don‘t have to fit an autopilot, you just can't
operate without one
Single pilot IFR requires an autopilot with altitude and
heading hold
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Control and Stability

Autopilots use gyroscopic references to detect changes in the
flight path
A classic autopilot from the 1950s would have its own earth
tied gyros to detect displacement and rate gyros in three axes
to detect rate of movement
More modern autopilot systems use the rate gyros of the IRS
to detect rate of movement directly and, by integrating the
signals, also detect displacement
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

A good example of such a system in operation is pitch
attitude control
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

Any attitude change in the pitch axis is sensed by a rate
gyroscope which precesses and produces an output signal
proportional to the rate of change of attitude
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

A signal processor or controller computes a corrective signal
and sends it to the elevator servo which moves the elevator
and feeds back the elevator position to the controller so that
actual and required movement can be compared
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

Feedback is an essential requirement of a closed loop control
system
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

As the original attitude is gradually restored the gyroscope
output signal, the error signal, is gradually removed and the
controller, in turn, removes the pitch command
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

This is a closed loop control system and it cannot operate
without feedback, in this case from the servos
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

The automatic control loop described for the pitch axis is
called an inner loop
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

An aircraft with a three axis autopilot would have three inner
loops
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

Control inputs to the system from external sources such as
FMS systems, the pilots themselves and air data systems
(manometric inputs) form a series of outer loops
(performance loop)
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

The function of the outer loop is to control, the function of the
inner loop to stabilise
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

Autopilots, therefore, have two functions:
To stabilise
To control the aircraft flight path
Stability functions include the operation of the yaw damper
and holding pitch and roll attitude
Flight path control functions include altitude holding, VOR and
ILS tracking and speed control
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Control Laws
The autopilot computer has to be given a set of rules, called
its control law
This will determine how the computer interprets a
performance demand in terms of a control response
The most obvious is that larger control deflections will be
needed to get the same aircraft rate of response at low speed
and the response or "gain" of the system is adjusted to
achieve this
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Control Laws
Control laws, however, cover much more than this
They determine the fundamental response of the aircraft and
set safety limits for automatic flight
When a fly-by-wire control system is introduced there have to
be control laws to operate the system even in full pilot
controlled manual flight
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Control Laws
The different types of control law can be illustrated by looking
at pitch control, the most complex of roll, pitch and yaw
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Direct Control Law

The basic mechanical connection between input and output is
called the direct control law
Under this law a nose up pitch demand applied and held will
initiate a nose up pitch rate
As the natural stability of the aircraft comes into effect to
oppose the increase in angle of attack the pitch rate will slow
to zero and the aircraft will hold a new nose up pitch attitude
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Pitch Rate Demand/Attitude Hold Law

ln this system a nose up pitch input applied and held will
initiate a nose up pitch rate as before, but the computer will
now continuously increase elevator deflection to maintain the
pitch rate constant
Under zero pitch input there will be zero change, so zero
pitch input is an attitude hold condition
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Pitch Rate Demand/Attitude Hold Law

This means that in a positive alpha vertical gust the aircraft
attitude will not change, but the extra lift will balloon the
aircraft above the intended flightpath
This law gives a similar response to the direct control law but
has the disadvantage that aircraft flightpath – ILS glidepath
for example - is not maintained under zero input and
continual autopilot control inputs are needed
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
G Demand/Flightpath Hold Law

A further refinement is the G demand/flightpath hold law
This relies on the idea that level flight is a constant 1 G
flightpath
lncreased G will make the aircraft go up, reduced G makes it
go down
ln response to a nose up pitch input the computer initiates a
demand for more G and calculates the elevator angle
necessary to achieve this
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
G Demand/Flightpath Hold Law

The effect is that a pitch input calls for a flightpath change
and zero pitch input is a flightpath hold demand
This is inherently good for maintaining a defined flightpath -
level flight or glideslope angle - but there are problem
There is an inherent lag in the response to pitch inputs from
gusts, which leads to sharp and rapid computed corrections,
particularly at low speed
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
C* Law
One fully developed control law is the C* law (C star law)
used by the Airbus A320 series in its fly-by-wire system
This is basically a flightpath hold law with an element of pitch
rate demand introduced at low speed to improve response on
the approach
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Safety features
The control law will protect the aircraft from overstress or
overspeed
The following factors are typical for a transport aircraft:
Overspeed - limit is Vmo or Mmo
Pitch attitude - limits are +30˚ to -15˚
Bank angle - limit is 67˚
Excessive alpha - this depends on configuration
Excessive G - depending on configuration
Excessive roll or pitch rate
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Synchronisation
When powered, an autopilot system will follow through the
manual control inputs so that there is no sudden jerk when
the autopilot is engaged
This is called synchronisation
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Interlocks
A number of electrical switches or interlocks connected in
series prevent automatic flight control from being powered up
until the system is capable of controlling the aircraft
lnterlocks prevent autopilot engagement if:
The electrical supply is faulty
The roll control knob is not centred
There is a synchronisation fault or
There is a fault in the attitude reference unit
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Auto Trim
Autoflight systems adjust trim settings to keep the aircraft in
trim in pitch so that there are no sudden control forces felt on
autopilot disengage
Trim actuator speeds in autoflight are generally about half the
speed used in manual flight
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Auto Trim
The slower than usual trimming rate when automatics are
selected is, on rare occasions, inadequate to keep pace with
the demanded pitch changes
Because of this, during an autoland the aircraft winds the
pitch trim aft as the FLARE mode is engaged and holds stick
force against trim for a short period in anticipation of the flare
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Auto Trim
On fly-by-wire aircraft auto-trim may also be available in pitch
and yaw
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Mach Trim
At high Mach numbers, typically M0.75 to M1.0, shockwave
formation on the upper wing surface causes the wing centre
of pressure to shift rearwards, often as far back as 50%MAC
Uncorrected, this leads to a large tail up/nose down pitching
force known as Mach tuck
Mach trim is active whether the autopilots are engaged or not
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Comparison
When more than one autopilot system is engaged the
different systems will compare demands to check for
discrepancies and a failed system will be identified and
switched down
Within individual systems, where there are duplicated or
triplicated control paths in use a similar system of comparison
takes place
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Comparison
Arming of autopilot modes fulfils a similar function
Arming the localiser (LOC) mode, for example, allows the
system to look ahead to engagement, but engagement is not
possrble until the aircraft is near to the localiser track
ln this way sudden extreme input demands are avoided
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Modes
The autopilot and flight director systems are controlled on a
single mode control panel (MCP) in the centre of the cockpit
and accessible by either pilot
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Modes
The APFDS can have the following outer loop functions
operated with full autopilot control and command (CMD)
engaged
Not all of these can be selected at once and not all are
available on all aircraft types
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Modes
Altitude hold ILS tracking
Airspeed hold INS tracking
Mach hold VOR tracking
Vertical speed hold LNAV
Heading hold VNAV
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Modes
A rarely used alternative to outer loop control is to select
control wheel steering (CWS)
CWS allows the aircraft to be flown manually but, if the pilot
removes his hands from the column, holds the pitch and roll
attitude selected
lf no modes are selected most autopilots will not engage in
command (CMD), all you get is the CWS inner loop functions,
auto-stability with possibly autotrim
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Modes
It is possible to engage a pitch mode in CMD and leave the
roll function in CWS by selecting no lateral steering mode
Thus the autopilot might, perhaps, hold altitude but the
aircraft can be steered using the control column in roll
Similarly, the aircraft may be operated in CMD to lock the
heading but left in CWS in pitch
lt is very unusual to use CWS like this, normally the autopilot
is left to get on with it in CMD
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Engage
Selecting one of the CMD switchlights will engage an
autopilot and the button will illuminate
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Engage
The autopilot will engage in any flight director mode already
selected or, if no modes are selected, it will engage in the
CWS mode
The flight mode annunciator (FMA) at the top of the PFD will
display CMD or CWS as appropriate and, if CMD is active,
the engaged mode
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Engage
Except in the approach (APP) mode only one autopilot can be
switched on at any time, switching on a second will
disconnect the first
The autopilot can, alternatively, be selected in pitch and roll
CWS using the switchlight underneath the CMD selection
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Disengage
A single autopilot can be disengaged by pressing the A/P
ENGAGE switchlight a second time or by engaging another
autopilot
All autopilots can be disengaged by pushing down the
autopilot disengage bar or by pressing the disengage switch
on the control column
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Disengage
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Disengage
When the disengage button on the control column or the
disengage bar on the autopilot panel is pressed the autopilot
disengage lights in front of the Captain and first officer flash
and a loud tone sounds
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Disengage
The lights can be extinguished and the tone stopped by
pressing the control column switch again
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autopilot Disengage
The other warning lights next to the A/P disconnect warning
show autothrottle (A/T) disengage and flight management
computer failure or message
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
LNAV and VNAV

Selecting LNAV and VNAV will hand over control of the roll,
heading, pitch and speed control to the FMS computer
The aircraft will follow the vertical profile and lateral
navigation track entered in the FMS
ln VNAV climb and descent the A/T sets the required thrust
and the autopilot maintains the FMC speed profile
Automatic level off occurs at the altitude selected on the MCP
or the VNAV altitude, whichever is reached first
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
LNAV and VNAV

ln VNAV cruise (level flight) the autopilot holds the altitude
and the AIT controls the speed as commanded by the FMS
When LNAV is selected the autopilot will intercept and track
the active FMS route
The FMA will show LNAV in white until capture, when LNAV
will change to green. VNAV is displayed in green on the PFD
when selected
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Vertical Speed Control

With the V/S button pressed the autopilot will adjust the pitch
to hold the vertical speed selected in the VERT SPEED
window
The vertical speed can be adjusted by moving the
thumbwheel under the window
The thumbwheel works in the same sense as a trim wheel,
for nose down the top of the wheel is rotated away from you,
for nose up it is rotated towards you
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

Only one pitch mode can be engaged at any time so other
pitch modes, like ALT HOLD are automatically disconnected
as V/S is engaged
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

When the autothrottle is in SPD mode and V/S is selected the
autothrottle will maintain the IAS at the demanded vertical
speed. lf AIT is not selected the pilots must manually apply
power to maintain the speed in the climb or reduce thrust for
a descent
When V/S is selected VIS is displayed in green on the FMA
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Altitude Control
The normal way to climb or descend to a new altitude is to
select it in the ALTITUDE window, select V/S and wind on the
desired vertical speed with the thumbwheel
The autopilot will then follow the V/S command with ALT ACQ
announced on the PFD
When the new altitude is reached V/S is automatically
disengaged, ALT HOLD is engaged and announced on the
PFD
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Altitude Control
The altitude may also be changed using VNAV as described
earlier or automatically by selecting level change (LVL CHG)
When LVL CHG is used the autopilot holds the selected
airspeed and A/T sets limit thrust for climbs and idle for
descents
To leave the selected altitude and continue a climb or descent
a new selection of V/S, VNAV or LVL CHG must be made
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Altitude Control
Altitude intervention (ALT INTV) is used during VNAV climbs
and descents to delete FMC altitudes and allow a continued
climb or descent to the altitude selected on the MCP
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Altitude Control
lf ALT HOLD is selected during a climb or descent the altitude
at selection is held
This time the switchlight does light up on the MCP as well as
ALT HOLD appeanng on the FMA
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Altitude Control
ALT HOLD for autopilot A is referenced to the Captain's
altimeter and for autopilot B it is referenced to the first
officer's altimeter
Thus if a QNH is set the autopilot holds an altitude, if 1013.2
Hpa is set it holds a flight level or pressure altitude
Once ALT HOLD is engaged the altimeter subscales may be
changed without affecting the autopilot in any way
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Heading Control
Pressing HDG SEL on the MCP will command the autopilot to
turn to and hold the heading selected in the HEADING
window which is repeated as the heading bug on the ND
When selected HDG SEL will be displayed on the PFD
There is an outer section on the heading select knob that is
used to set maximum bank angles in HDG SEL and VOR
modes, but not in LNAV
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
Autothrottle is the inclusion of automatic throttle control in the
full APFDS system
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
Automatic throttle is available even when the flight director is
off and no autopilot is engaged
There are two forms of command that are given to the
autothrottle system; to maintain the aircraft at a selected
speed (SPEED) or to deliver a selected amount of thrust
Engine thrust is designated as an engine pressure ratio
(EPR) or the fan speed as a percentage, (N1), the B737 uses
N1
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
The A/T ARM switch arms the autothrottle
The A/T will engage:
if the N1 or SPEED switches are selected,
when the TOGA buttons on the throttles are pressed
or when VNAV, LVL CHG or TO/GA is the active autopilot
mode
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
Pressing N1 will engage the autothrottle to hold the N1
selected on the FMS
Pressing SPEED will hold the speed at the value selected in
the IAS/MACH window, remember that this value can be
manually set or over ridden by VNAV
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
With no autopilot or flight director active both N1 and the
basic SPEED modes are available
Autothrottle can hold speed (lAS), Mach number or N1/EPR
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
An autothrottle may be disengaged:
by pressing the disengage buttons on the throttles;
on most systems, by selecting reverse thrust;
automatically, two seconds after touchdown;
by selecting the A/T arm switch to off; or
if there is a throttle asymmetry of more than 10˚ in the late
stages of a multi-channel autoland
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle
When autothrottle is disengaged the A/T arm switch releases
to the OFF position and the A/T disengage lights flash
The flashing lights can be cancelled by pressing the A/T
disengage buttons again
some auts throttle systems determine the thrust modes by
thrust lever position alone - there is no thrust mode panel, no
thrust rating panel and no TOGA switches
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle Take-Off
A "normal" take-off with a modern transport aircraft will be at
reduced thrust selected on the FMS
ln this case the aircraft is lined up and N1 engaged by
pressing the TOGA button on the throttles
The throttles will be driven forward to the selected N1 and
held there by the throttle actuator
The pilot can pull them back, but on release they will motor
forward again
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
At 84 KT groundspeed, sensed by the lRS, the mode on the
PFD changes to THR HOLD
Throttle positions set by the pilot will now be held
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
After take-off VNAV can be engaged and the climb will
continue at the selected climb thrust
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Mode Annunciaton
The autothrottle mode and limits are displayed on the PFD on
the left-hand side of the FMA. Possible modes are:
 N1
 GA
 RETARD
 FMC SPD
 MCP SPD
 THR HOLD
 ARM
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Autothrottle Limits
The autothrottle will control limiting speeds independent of
the stall warning and mach/airspeed warning systems
lt will not permit speeds to exceed Vmo/Mmo and the flap and
gear placard speeds or be less than 1.3 VS
The autothrottle will not automatically adjust speed when
turbulence is encountered
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
ILS and Autoland
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
ILS Capture
A single autopilot can be used for single channel ILS
approaches or both autopilots can be engaged for a dual
channel approach
The ILS ground system operates on two frequencies, VHF or
metric for the centre line, called the localiser and UHF or
decimetric for the glideslope
The airborne equipment pairs the frequencies so that only the
VHF frequency need be selected
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
ILS Capture
The approach is started with the autopilot steering with HDG
SEL or LNAV engaged on an intercept course for the localiser
One nav receiver must be selected to an ILS frequency
before approach (APP) can be selected, for a dual approach
both nav receivers must be tuned to the lLS
The APP switchlight is then selected and VOR LOC and G/S
show in white on the FMA to indicate they are armed
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
ILS Capture
Once APP is selected the second autopilot can also be
selected, this arms it to engage when localiser and glideslope
are captured and the aircraft is below 1500 ft radio
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
ILS Capture
Before the second autopilot engages at 1500 ft the 8737 PFD
shows SINGLE CH to show only one autopilot is operating,
after the second channel engages CMD is shown once more
ln a three channel system such as on the B767 slightly
different terminology is used, a separate indicator shows
LAND 2 when two channels are active or LAND 3 if three
autopilots are available and below 1500 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
ILS Capture
There are limits on speed, distance to touchdown and angle
of interception which must be observed in order to achieve
localiser capture
The actual point of localiser capture varies depending on
intercept angle and closure rate - it uses an interception
versus radio deviation law - but will not be later than half a dot
deviation
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
ILS Capture
As the localiser is captured VOR LOC changes to green on
the FMA to show the mode is active, when the glideslope is
captured the white G/S also turns green
Localiser capture employs an interception versus radio
deviation law
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Fail Operational and Fail Passive

For an automatic landing in low ceiling and visibility there
must be complete confidence in the system
To obtain this there must be a system of continuous cross-
checking
This is usually achieved by having three functioning and
engaged autopilots or autopilot channel
Failure of one component will result in it being voted out and
shut down
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

This is called a "fail operational” or "fail active" system
The approach can then be continued on the remaining
serviceable systems without loss of capability but with a
reduced level of redundancy
Fail active systems allow the automatic approach to continue
after a single failure
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

lf an automatic ILS is conducted with only two autopilots and
there is a discrepancy between them it is not normally
possible to tell which one has failed
Under these circumstances both autopilots will disengage
and the aircraft will be left in a trimmed state
This is called a fail passive system
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

JARs require that fail passive is the reversionary state of a
fail operational system after the first component failure
It is possible for a two autopilot system to be fail operational
by the addition of an external monitoring and comparison
system which can identify and disconnect the failed autopilot
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
B737 Head-Up Displays
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
B737 Head-Up Displays

Fail operational hybrid landing systems, where a primary fail
passive system is supplemented by a secondary independent
guidance system such as a head-up display, are also
permitted by EASA
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
The Alert Height

A component failure in a fail operational system has different
implications at 1000 ft than it does at 100 ft
To control decision making, an alert height is specified by the
operator, often at around 200 ft radio
A failure before alert height will require either a go-around or
a reversion to a higher decision height whereas a failure
below alert height would allow the approach to continue in fail
passive status
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Full Autoland Profile

The autoland profile differs slightly from aircraft to aircraft
The following profile is for a two channel autopilot
The aircraft is flown in the cruise and initial descent on a
single autopilot channel
The localiser and glideslope are armed for capture as
previously described and the second autopilot channel is
armed
The glideslope signal is disconnected at approximately 45 ft
radio height
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

By 1500 ft RA first the localiser and then the glideslope would
be captured
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

At 1500 ft RA the autoland begins a self-check and engages
the remaining autopilot channel(s)
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

the remaining channel must be engaged by 800 ft radio
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

CMD would be enunciated on the PFD and the APP
switchlight extinguishes
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

The aircraft flies in trim. FLARE mode is armed
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

Go-around (GA) is armed but not annunciated on the FMA
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

At 400 ft to 330 ft RA the aircraft trims nose up but holds
attitude with nose down elevator
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

At 300 ft RA the glideslope sensitivity is reduced
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

At 200 ft RA the aircraft longitudinal axis is lined up with the
runway centre line, holding drift with rudder and aileron
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

At 50 ft to 45 ft RA FLARE mode takes over pitch control from
the glideslope signal and descends the aircraft at 2 ft per sec
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

At 5 ft RA the touchdown and ROLLOUT mode engages to
decrease pitch attitude. GA is inhibited
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

Reverse thrust is manually selected, disengaging the
autothrottle
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

If reverse thrust is not used autothrottle will automatically
disengage after 2 seconds
Centreline guidance is maintained by the autopilots until the
pilots disengage them
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

This sequence means that if there is a complete autopilot
failure in the last 300 ft of the approach the aircraft will be out
of trim
On some aircraft nose up forces of 20-30 lb may be felt
This is just about inside the requirements of JAR-AWO-109
that requires "no unacceptable flight path disturbance" on
reversion
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT

The problem is partly eased by the JAR-AWO-107
requirement that autopilot controlled aborts from late in the
approach can only be done by engaging GA
This automatically removes the out-of-trim setting
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Automatic Approaches without Auto-Land

Not all airfields and aircraft are certified for full autolands,
known as CAT mode
Some approaches will be flown by the autopilot down to
decision height at which point the autopilot is disengaged and
the landing is flown manually, these are called semi-
automatic approaches
On semi-automatic approaches the autopilot is disengaged at
DH
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Go-Around
The go-around mode (GA) arms itself at glideslope capture
and is engaged by pressing the take-off and go-around
(TOGA) switches on the throttle levers
The autopilot(s) will initiate a pitch up to +15˚ pitch attitude
and the autothrottle will select full thrust
The autopilot will hold the track existing at the GA engage
point
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Go-Around
Once 2400 fpm climb is achieved the thrust will be adjusted
to hold 2000 fpm at the airspeed existing at GA engage
On some other systems pressing the TOGA buttons once will
give the reduced EPR selected and pressing a second time
will give full thrust
The pilots retract gear and flap in sequence to reduce the
drag
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Back Course
Some autopilots have a back course (B CRS) option. lf fitted,
it arms the autopilot to capture the back course of the tuned
ILS and fly a reverse course away from the runway for
departure or go round
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Flight Directors
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Yaw Damping
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
SELF STUDY
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Fly-by-wire
A fly-by-wire system dispenses altogether with any
mechanical connection between the pilot input and the control
actuator
A fly-by-wire system dispenses altogether with any
mechanical connection between the pilot input and the control
actuator power, but the demands are conveyed to them in a
wholly electronic form
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Fly-by-wire
An aircraft with conventional manual controls and an autopilot
is already half way there
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Fly-by-wire
The pilot's demands go manually to the actuators, but the
autopilot demands come from the autopilot computer to the
actuators in electronic form
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Fly-by-wire
It is a small step to having the pilot demands sent in
electronic form to the FCC for onward transmission to the
control actuators
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Fly-by-wire
Since the connection between pilot demand and control
deflection is now entirely in the hands of the FCC two factors
become of overriding importance
The connection must be maintained to levels of safety no less
than is expected of a mechanical system and the FCC must
be given a series of instructions to govern its handling of pilot
input
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Fly-by-wire
Any FBW system must have massive redundancy and a set
of control laws
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Redundancy
A typical FBW system will have:
Three independently powered hydraulic systems powering
three-way split control systems, each of which can give
limited control of the aircraft on their own.
Four engine driven generators, an APU driven generator
and a hydraulic (main system or RAT) driven generator. Two
FCCs are available on the emergency supplies.
Three primary FCCs and two secondary FCCs
Two further flight warning computers
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Redundancy
A typical FBW system will have:
Three independently powered hydraulic systems powering
three-way split control systems, each of which can give
limited control of the aircraft on their own.
A residual manual connection in the pitch trim and rudder
channels that can be used to stabilise and fly the aircraft in
a limited way in case of, for example, a total electrical
failures
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Control Laws
The general principles of control laws were discussed at the
beginning of the chapter
The Airbus FBW system uses the C* law in pitch control, for
example
The full laws, for roll, pitch and yaw and for flight protection
are extremely complex, and beyond the scope of this course
However, it is worth noting that the Airbus A320 series uses
three forms of control laws:
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Control Laws
The normal law applies when all systems are functioning or
a single system failure has occurred. This gives the aircraft
full control and full flight protection
The alternate law applies when two system failures have
occurred. This gives automatic control up to the normal
operating envelope of the aircraft but a reversion to the
direct law outside these limits
The direct law applies when more than two system failures
have occurred. This mimics the direct connection
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Pros and Cons

A fly-by-wire system gives a very accurate and smooth
response to demands
lt can also fly with great accuracy on the edges of the flight
envelope so an emergency pull-up to avoid controlled flight
into terrain is executed more quickly and with a better chance
of success than with direct pilot control
On the other side, flight that restricts the pilot to monitoring
automatic systems has dangers of its own
INSTRUMENTATION
AUTOFLIGHT
Pros and Cons

System failures are not always noticed in time for a
satisfactory reaction, and system emergencies, when they
come, are so unusual that pilots have difficulty reacting
correctly
INSTRUMENTATION
WARNING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS
Warning and recording systems
INSTRUMENTATION
There are a large number of warnings and alerts that must be

brought to the attention of the crew
Some record serious hazards, others are not so serious
Some will call for immediate corrective action, some can be
put on one side for later action
Because of this complexity there is a standard system of
grading warnings, of the type of alert used, and the speed of
response called for
INSTRUMENTATION
Alert Levels
The three levels of alerting are:
Warnings or Level A Alerts
These require immediate crew action
Cautions or Level B Alerts
These require immediate crew alertness and possible future
action
Advisory or Level C Alerts
These require crew alertness only
INSTRUMENTATION
Alert Levels
Warnings must get the attention of the crew in time for
corrective action to be effective
lt follows that the loudest, clearest and most startling systems
are used for warnings, with a reduction in urgency for
cautions and advisories
INSTRUMENTATION
Warning Types
Warnings are generated for the three senses of sight, sound
and feel
These are called visual, aural and tactile warnings
INSTRUMENTATION
Warning Types
Warnings are generated for the three senses of sight, sound
and feel
These are called visual, aural and tactile warnings
Lights, bells and the stick shaker are good examples of these
INSTRUMENTATION
Visual Warnings
Visual warnings will be lights, electronic displays and
messages on the EFIS/EICAS and flags or markers
The level of alert is:
Red for warnings, flight envelope or system limits
Yellow, or amber, for cautions or abnormals
White for advisories
INSTRUMENTATION
Visual Warnings
A flashing visual warning is more attention-getting than a
steady warning, so flashing red lights are at the top of the
alerting scale but steady white messages are at the bottom
INSTRUMENTATION
Aural Warnings
Aural warnings can be bells, klaxons or sirens or spoken
messages
Loud bells and loud intermittent klaxons or sirens are the
most attention-getting, calmly spoken low volume voice
messages the least
INSTRUMENTATION
Aural Warnings
The warnings are type specific
Boeing uses a bell for fire warnings and various klaxons for
other warnings
Voice messages are used for a variety of GPWS and TCAS
alerts
Airbus uses repetitive chimes for all warnings, a "cavalry
charge" for autopilot disengage, a "cricket" (the insect) sound
for stall warning and various voice messages
INSTRUMENTATION
Tactile Warnings
The only current example of tactile alerts is the stick shaker
mechanism in the stall warning system
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Equipment
Most warnings and cautions have three or four elements
A master caution or master fire Warning light is activated,
there is an EICAS message which describes the failure, there
is often an individual light which might appear on the relevant
system panel, and there may be an audio warning
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Equipment
INSTRUMENTATION
Master Warning and Cautions

The master warning and caution lights are usually located on
the glareshield panel in front of the pilots as attention getters,
the B737 layout is shown below
INSTRUMENTATION
Master Warning and Cautions

Master caution and warning lights are usually steady lights
The master fire warning light and master caution light shown
below are switchlights, that is to say both a switch and a light
Pressing the master fire warning light cuts out the associated
bell but leaves the light on until the fire is out, pressing the
master caution light resets the master caution system
INSTRUMENTATION
EICAS
The centre screen in the electronic cockpit is used to display
system information, RPM, fuel flow etc., and will also
announce warnings, cautions and advisories from other
systems
The system is called ECAM on the Airbus and EICAS on
most other types
INSTRUMENTATION
EICAS Warnings, Cautions & Advisories

EICAS warnings are shown in red, cautions are yellow and
advisories are white
INSTRUMENTATION
Automatic Suppression of Warnings and Cautions

Many warnings and cautions are automatically inhibited at
different times
Some are inhibited during start-up to avoid transient false
warnings, others are inhibited at critical stages of the takeoff
run or at other stages of flight
INSTRUMENTATION
Automatic Suppression of Warnings and Cautions

When cautions and warnings are automatically inhibited on
the take-off run the master caution lights are usually inhibited
from about 80 KT on take-off to 400 ft and engine fire warning
bells are therefore usually inhibited from approximately
V1/VR to 400 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
FM Radio Altimeters
Radio altimeters are fitted alongside barometric altimeters in
most commercial aircraft
Radio altimeters provide an accurate height measurement
that is most useful in the landing and take-off phase
Consequently they are only active at low level, with older
equipment active from 5000 ft to the surface and most
modern equipment active from 2500 ft down
INSTRUMENTATION
FM Radio Altimeters
Modern radio altimeters are active from 2500 ft down to
ground level
The primary function of radio altimeters is to provide accurate
decision height (DH) information where precision approaches
are flown to a DH of less than 200 ft
Radio altitude is also used as an input to the ground proximity
warning system (GPWS) and TCAS
INSTRUMENTATION
System Operation
The basic concept is that a radio beam is directed at the
ground in a 30' cone and the signal reflected back to the
aircraft
The radio altimeter transmits in a 30° cone
Most radars work by timing how long the signal takes to travel
to the target, in this case the ground, and back
The problem with this idea is that when the aeroplane is very
close to the ground the time delay for the returning signal is
very small and difficult to measure
INSTRUMENTATION
System Operation
Most radars also send and receive pulses of radar energy
using a single aerial to do both jobs by switching its function
from transmit to receive
At very short ranges this idea also fails because the aerial
cannot switch from transmit to receive quickly enough to
catch the returning pulse
INSTRUMENTATION
System Operation
Radio altimeters height is compensated both for the gear
height and the wiring inside the aircraft
Radio altimeters consequently use a continuous wave (CW)
radar rather than a pulse radar
This needs separate transmitter and receiver aerials
These are usually located under the fuselage near the gear
position
INSTRUMENTATION
System Operation
The readings are zeroed to compensate for both aerial height
and the wiring inside the aircraft so that the altimeter reads
zero when the wheels touch down in the landing attitude
Positioning the aerials near the gear means that the radio
altimeter will also read zero when the nosewheel is on the
ground, not essential but convenient
INSTRUMENTATION
System Operation
CW radio altimeters do not measure the time delay for the
returning signal directly as other radars do
The transmitted frequency sweeps up and down through a
range of about 200 MHz but centred on 4300 MHz
INSTRUMENTATION
System Operation
The difference between the frequency being transmitted and
the one returning, the beat frequency, is then a measurement
of height
The frequencies are SHF, between 4200 MHz and 4400 MHz,
described as FM
A higher sweep rate produces greater accuracy at low heights
but a lower sweep rate is needed at height to prevent
ambiguous readings
INSTRUMENTATION
System Operation
Because the frequency of use varies between 4200 MHz and
4400 MHz these are known as frequency modulated radio
altimeters
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Equipment
ln older displays the height information can be shown on a
dial, or on a strip indicator
All but the most basic systems will have a decision height
(DH) bug, possibly with a DH warning light
lf there is an audio tone associated with the DH bug the tone
will start about 50 ft above the selected height and increase in
volume and pitch until the DH is passed, at which time it will
abruptly stop
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Equipment
Accuracy is ±2ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Equipment
ln modern systems the RA data is displayed on the PFD on
its own or as part of the decision height display
RA data is fed to the EFIS, the central flight warning system,
if there is one, the GPWS and the flight data recorder
Accuracy
Radio altimeters are accurate to ±2 ft in the first 500 ft or
±1.5% whichever is greater
INSTRUMENTATION
GPWS & TAWS

Ground proximity warning system (GPWS) equipment is now
compulsory for most public transport aircraft
The basic system gives warnings to the flight crew that things
are about to go badly wrong
More advanced systems use voice alerts to advise that, for
instance, rate of descent is too high or the aircraft is too far
below the glideslope
Enhanced GPWS includes a terrain awareness warning
system (TAWS), a forward looking terrain avoidance function
INSTRUMENTATION
JAA Requirements for GPWS

JAR-OPS requires jet or turboprop public transport over 5700
kg or with more than 9 seats to have a GPWS fitted
INSTRUMENTATION

The GPWS must provide, by means of distinctive audible
signals which may be supplemented by visual signals,
warning of:
Sink rate Mode 1
Ground proximity Mode 2
Altitude loss after take-off or go-around Mode 3
lncorrect landing configuration Mode 4
Downward glideslope deviation Mode 5
INSTRUMENTATION

Turboprop or jet aircraft with a certificated takeoff mass over
15 000 kg or approved to carry more than 30 passengers
need a GPWS that includes TAWS, an enhanced GPWS. The
TAWS must include both visual and audible warnings
INSTRUMENTATION

Manufacturers of GPWS equipment sometimes draw a
distinction between the more and less urgent warnings by
calling the less urgent ALERTS and the more urgent
WARNINGS
The distinction is that an alert only requires a 'corrective
response', whereas a warning requires an immediate climb
manoeuvre
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
Cockpit equipment varies a little, the B737 equipment is
typical. lt consists of a control panel, two warning lights easily
visible to the pilots and a loudspeaker for audio warnings
Ln addition to these dedicated displays any GPWS alert or
warning will trigger the master warning or caution lights and
written warnings on the EFIS
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
The two PULL UP warning lights light up in red when alerts or
warnings in modes 1 to 4 are activated
lllumination is accompanied by a specific voice warning
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
The amber BELOW G/S lights illuminate when mode 5 is
activated, accompanied by a "GLIDESLOPE" aural warning
When the BELOW G/S lights are lit, a brief press will
extinguish the light and silence the glideslope aural warning
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
The B737 control panels have two guarded switches. The
FLAP lNHlBlT inhibits or cancels warnings caused by the flap
selectors not being set to 30° or 40°, the landing positions
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
GEAR lNHlBlT switch inhibits warnings caused by the gear
selector not being in the down position, it would only be used
in a gear up landing
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
INOP illuminates in yellow when the system fails or the circuit
breaker is pulled
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
The SYS TST button can be pressed momentarily on the
ground or in flight above 1000 ft radio height to conduct a
BITE (built in test equipment)test
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
When pressed the lights described above are all illuminated
and a sequence of aural warnings and alerts is sounded
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Displays
The BITE test performs part of the pre-flight checks. lf the
visual or aural warnings are not given as expected this
indicates a system fault that has not been announced by the
INOP light
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 1
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 1
Mode one gives warning of excessive barometric rate of
descent
lt is active below 2500 ft radio and, when a barometric rate of
descent greater than approximately three times the radio
height is reached, it gives the alert "SINK RATE, SINK RATE”
lf the high rate of descent is maintained closer to the ground
the alert becomes the warning "WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP"
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 2
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 2
Mode 2, is triggered by reducing radio altitude and warns of
rising ground beneath the aircraft
The initial alert is "TERRAIN, TERRAIN"
lf the situation worsens the alert is replaced by the warning
"WHOOP, WHOOR PULL UP" repeated continuously until the
radio altitude has stopped reducing and an increase of 300 ft
baro altitude is registered
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 2
Mode 1 and mode 2 together are capable of dealing with
most controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) incidents
There is, however, one glaring exception
Because the major input for mode 2 is radio altitude, and
because the radio altimeter only senses terrain in a 30° cone
below the aircraft, neither modes 1 or 2 will stop you flying
straight into a vertical cliff face
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 3
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 3
Mode 3 warns of barometric height loss after a take-off or go-
around
For this mode to be active the flap selectors must be moved
away from the 'land' position and the gear selected up
On some aircraft throttle position is also an input
These preconditions prevent mode three going off on the
approach and mean that it is automatically armed on go-
around
The alert is "DON'T SINK, DON'T SlNK", there is no warning
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 4
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 4
Mode 4 warns of closeness to the ground without the
appropriate gear and flap selections
At high speed the aircraft is unlikely to be making an
approach so the aim of the alert is to inform the pilot of
ground proximity, the audio is "TOO LOW TERRAIN''
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 4
At lower speeds, if the aircraft is close to the ground and
does not have either gear or flaps selected the aim of the
alert is to tell the pilot about the unusual configuration, the
alerts are "TOO LOW, GEAR" or "TOO LOW, FLAPS" as
appropriate
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 4
Many National Authorities regard the high speed "TOO LOW
TERRAIN" as a warning, not an alert, and it therefore
requires an immediate climb manoeuvre
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 5
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 5
Mode 5 gives warning of deviation below the glideslope, on
the B737 more than 1.3 dots below the glideslope
lt gives the alert "GLIDESLOPE, GLIDESLOPE", initially at
half volume, then, if the situation worsens, faster and at full
volume
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 5
This mode is armed when a valid signal is received on ILS l
and in a specified radio height bracket
Because of this, mode 5 can go off when it is not required,
perhaps on a visual approach or on an NDB/DME approach
ln these circumstances if the amber BELOW G/S light is
pressed before the approach mode 5 will be inhibited
throughout the approach and re-arm itself on go-around
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 6
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 6
Mode 6 includes height and bank angle call outs designed to
increase situational awareness
Mode 6 is not required by JAR-OPS
The most basic mode 6 installation calls out "MlNlMUMS
MINIMUMS" as the bugged radio decision height is passed to
replaced the traditional rad alt tone
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 6
More advanced systems automatically call out customer
specified radio heights in the latter stages of the approach
and even include the command "RETARD" to retard the
throttles on landing
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 6
The most sophisticated mode 6 systems will include an alert
of excessive bank angle, "BANK ANGLE BANK ANGLE”
The thresholds for this alert vary by type and with radio
height, becoming more sensitive near the ground
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 7
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 7
GPWS mode 7 is not required by JAR-OPS
Where fitted it provides wind shear alerts and warnings
GPWS detects wind shear from a legion of inputs including
air data, temperature, rate of climb or descent, angle of
attack, radio height and vertical and longitudinal acceleration
from the lRS
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode 7
Some installations, not the B-737, have separate amber and
red wind shear warning lights
When wind shear is initially detected the audio alert
"CAUTION WINDSHEAR" is given with an amber light,
severe wind shear gives a red light, and a siren or horn
followed by the warning "WINDSHEAR, WINDSHEAR”
The B-737 only has the warning
INSTRUMENTATION
TAWS
The terrain awareness warning system of the enhanced
GPWS (EGPWS) operates by relating aircraft position, track
and groundspeed derived principally from a 3D satellite fix to
a mathematical model of the terrain
The terrain database has global coverage but more resolution
near airports with hard surface runways of 3500 ft or more in
length
INSTRUMENTATION
TAWS
The system shows terrain less than 2000 ft below aircraft
altitude in a display similar to the weather radar display on the
EHSI in map mode or on a dedicated colour weather radar
display
Plan displays of terrain in green, amber or red according to
the degree of danger replace the weather displays if the
TERR DISP switch is selected
INSTRUMENTATION
TAWS
Aural warnings are "CAUTION TERRAIN” followed by
"TERRAIN, TERRAIN, PULL UP“
There is no "WHOOP, WHOOP" warning
Red "PULL UP" lights illuminate
INSTRUMENTATION
TAWS
The system also generates a terrain clearance floor around
the nearest stored airfield at heights roughly equivalent to a
3° approach
Penetration of the floor generates a "TOO LOW, TERRAIN”
warning
This system does not know which airfield is the destination
field it bases its terrain floor on the nearest airfield and this
can be confusing if airfields are close together
INSTRUMENTATION
Initial Actions
An alert requires a corrective response
For instance if the GPWS says "too low, gear" either select
the gear down or go-around
A warning requires a full wind shear go-around without
question or discussion
INSTRUMENTATION
Initial Actions
A wind shear go-around normally involves leaving the gear
and flaps where they are, retracting spoilers or speedbrakes,
selecting full power and pitching up to a high nose attitude,
usually just on the light buffet, to get away from the ground as
quickly as possible
The only time you are exempt from this requirement is when
you are VMC and clear of cloud and it is immediately obvious
to the aircraft captain that there is no danger
INSTRUMENTATION
Classification of Warnings & Alerts

Warnings and alerts may be classified as follows:
Genuine
Genuine warnings and alerts are correctly generated by the
GPWS in accordance with its technical specification
INSTRUMENTATION

Nuisance
Nuisance warnings and alerts are alerts correctly generated
by the system when the pilot is flying an accepted safe
procedure
ln other words, the criteria for the alert have been infringed
but the situation is not unsafe
INSTRUMENTATION

Nuisance
The most frequent nuisance alerts are TERRAIN TERRAIN
on the approach
lf the aircraft is VMC and on an accepted procedure like an
ILS then the alert is treated as spurious, if IMC you should do
a goaround
INSTRUMENTATION

False
False alerts and warnings are generated by the GPWS but
are not in accordance with its technical specification, in other
words, it is broken
INSTRUMENTATION
TCAS
The traffic alert collision avoidance system, TCAS l, was
designed to provide traffic information between aircraft using
SSR transponders independent of ground based radar unit
lts derivative, TCAS ll improves on this capability by providing
manoeuvre advice in the pitching plane in the event of
possible conflictions
ln the USA the system is called TCAS, in JAA documents it is
referred to as ACAS (airborne collision avoidance system)
INSTRUMENTATION
TCAS
JAR and EU OPS now require new aircraft with more than 19
passenger seats or with a MTOM of more than 5700 kg to
carry and use TCAS ll
Ln addition, aircraft of more than 5700 kg registered outside
JAA and EASA states are required to have TCAS ll fitted to
operate in European RVSM airspace or in the North Atlantic
region
INSTRUMENTATION
TCAS
TCAS provides collision avoidance commands in the pitching
plane
INSTRUMENTATION
The TCAS system uses a mode S SSR to interrogate the
SSR transponders of nearby aircraft to plot their positions
and relative velocities
lt also receives spontaneous transmissions, squitters, from
mode S equipped aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
Bearings are obtained by using direction finding receiving
aerials and distance is determined by using the time delay
between transmitted and received signals
Altitude is read off the mode C response
INSTRUMENTATION
The TCAS computes the track and closing speeds of the
transponding aircraft and, where it decides a collision is
possible, issues a warning to the crew
lf the time to impact is small it generates a pitch manoeuvere
command to avoid the collision
INSTRUMENTATION
The TCAS can cope with replies from modes A, C or S
transponders
When both aircraft are equipped with TCAS ll and mode S the
advice on how to avoid a collision will be coordinated by the
mode S data link between the two aircraft
INSTRUMENTATION
The system protects a small and variable volume of airspace
around the aircraft known as the collision area, an area where
a collision is possible
The threat is determined in terms of time to enter the collision
area , a variable known as tau, the phonetic pronunciation of
the Greek letter T
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
TCAS envelopes vary between equipment manufacturers
Aircraft that are assessed as being likely to enter the collision
area in between 35 to 48 seconds result in an audio caution
of "TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC", known as a traffic advisory (TA)
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
lf the time to enter the collision area reduces to 15 to 35
seconds the system will generate an audio command to
"CLlMB, CLlMB", "DESCEND, DESCEND" or, if already
climbing or descending, "INCREASE CLIMB" or "INCREASE
DESCENT”
lf required, it can also reverse initial instructions so that
"DESCEND, DESCEND", for instance, is followed by "CLIMB,
CLIMB NOW". These are resolution advisories (RAs)
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
Although there are differences between manufacturers, for
the purposes of the exam, assume that the envelope for an
RA is always 15 to 35 seconds
INSTRUMENTATION
For classification RAs can be sub-divided into corrective
advisories, advising a change in rate of climb or descent and
preventative advisories which command "MONITOR
VERTICAL SPEED” and avoid certain rates of climb or
descent
When the conflict is resolved the advice "CLEAR OF
CONFLICT" will be given
INSTRUMENTATION
When both aircraft are equipped with TCAS Il, and a 'threat'
materialises, the mode S data link between the two aircraft
provides coordinated and complimentary RAs
The first aircraft to make the interrogation sends an 'intent'
message to which the receiving aircraft reacts to in the
opposite sense
One aircraft will climb and the other descends
INSTRUMENTATION
Range and Limitations

The range of the system outside terminal areas is 30 NM and
±2700 ft
ln a high density traffic area TCAS automatically reduces its
interrogation rate and power thus reducing the maximum
range
Surveillance out to at least 6 NM is guaranteed
INSTRUMENTATION

ln certain circumstances relative bearing information may be
unavailable or unreliable
Because bearing information is only used for display
purposes, not as part of the algorithm calculating tau, both
RAs and TAs will still be generated for conflicting no-bearing
traffic
lf the intruder replies with no mode C altitude TCAS assumes
it is at the same height but will only issue a TA
INSTRUMENTATION

At high altitude where aircraft performance is limited, or with
gear and flap down, TCAS recognises the limitation and will
inhibit "CLlMB” and "INCREASE CLIMB" RAs
All aural commands are inhibited by GPWS, terrain and wind
shear warnings
INSTRUMENTATION

The radio altimeter input is used to identify and discard
returns within 360 ft of the ground and will declare own
aircraft on ground through air/ground logic systems and
RADALT height less than 50 ft
INSTRUMENTATION

As the radio altitude progressively decreased resolution
advisories are progressively inhibited:
RAs that recommend an increase in rate of descent are
inhibited below 1450 ft radio altitude
RAs that recommend a descent are inhibited below 1100 ft
radio altitude
All RAs are inhibited below 1000 ft
All aural commands are inhibited below 500 ft
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Display and Terminology

TCAS information can be displayed on a combined VSI/TCAS
display unit or be superimposed on an EFIS display
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION

Transponding traffic not generating a TA or an RA and within
6 NM and t1200 ft is called proximate traffic and transponding
traffic not generating a TA or an RA and outside these limits is
called other traffic
INSTRUMENTATION

The displays use a standard colour coding depending on the
level of threat.
Red indicates an immedrate threat and is only used with an
RA
Amber represents a moderate threat and is only used with a
TA
Proximate traffic is shown as a cyan or white lozenge, other
traffic is shown as a cyan or white hollow lozenge
INSTRUMENTATION

The combine VSI/TCAS unit can be referred to as an
electronic VSI (EVSI) or as a LCD variometer
INSTRUMENTATION

On this instrument the rate of climb or descent to be avoided
is shown as a red arc and the recommended rate of climb or
descent as a green arc
Any section of the scale that is not red is, however,
considered safe
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION

TCAS information may also be displayed on the PFD and the
ND.
Pitch avoid areas are shown on the ADI and on the VSl. The
scale and desired display on the ND may be changed through
the EFIS controller
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
Reactions
TAs are only fsr information
The crew should liase with ATC for separation
The bearing information displayed is so unreliable that pilots
should not manoeuvre on the basis of the TCAS display
alone
INSTRUMENTATION
Reactions
The crew response to an RA is disengage the autopilot and to
follow the instructions smoothly and promptly
Where the required action conflicts with ATC clearance
the pilot must follow the TCAS RA for the purpose of
avoiding immediate danger , but must inform ATC of his
deviation from the clearance as soon as possible
INSTRUMENTATION
Reactions
As soon as the advice "CLEAR OF CONFLICT" is received
return to the assigned flight level
INSTRUMENTATION
Reactions
TCAS aims to give a clearance of between 300-500 ft to
resolve the conflict without the excursion imposing on
adjacent flight levels
Vertical speed responses should be actioned to avoid red
arcs and pitch avoidance areas as displayed and if required
to pilots should fly the green arc or outlined pitch guidance
area
INSTRUMENTATION
Reactions
The pilot reaction time expected by the TCAS logic is 5
seconds, with the pilot achieving the pull up/push over in
three seconds
Pitch change requirements depend on speed
Typical g values for a "CLlMB, CLIMB" or DESCEND,
DESCEND” are 0.25 g, aiming for a 1500 ft/min rate of climb
or descent
INSTRUMENTATION
Reactions
For an enhanced RA, "INCREASE CLIMB" or "INCREASE
DESCENT" the typical g values are 0.35 g, aiming for a 2500
ft/min rate of climb or descent to be achieved in 2.5 seconds
INSTRUMENTATION
Mode S Transponder/TCAS Control Panel

The mode S/TCAS transponder controls are almost the same
as those for mode A/C transponders
INSTRUMENTATION

lt controls two transponders which can be selected by the
rotary switch at bottom right
INSTRUMENTATION

To the left of this is the IDENT button and the transponder
amber failure warning light
INSTRUMENTATION

The mode A code is set using the large knob under the digital
display
INSTRUMENTATION

The toggle switch at the top right allows the pressure altitude
feed to be switched between the air data computers, ADC1&2
INSTRUMENTATION

The rotary switch at the bottom centre allows selections of:
INSTRUMENTATION

TEST: TCAS system functional test
INSTRUMENTATION

STBY: Power is applied to the TCAS processor and mode S
transponder. The TCAS does not issue any interrogations
and the transponder will only reply to discrete interrogations
INSTRUMENTATION

ALT RPTG: Altitude reporting off
INSTRUMENTATION

XPDR: the mode S transponder is fully operational and will
reply to all appropriate ground and TCAS interrogations.
TCAS remains in standby
INSTRUMENTATION

TA ONLY: The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS
will issue the appropriate interrogations. TCAS will only issue
TAs, RAs will be inhibited
INSTRUMENTATION

TA/RA: The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS
will issue appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking
functions. TCAS will issue TAs and RAs
INSTRUMENTATION

NB. Downgrading to TA ONLY would be a company defined
standard operating procedure such as following an engine
failure where manoeuvre capability is restricted or when
doing approaches to parallel runways. When another TCAS ll
equipped aircraft interrogates your aircraft with TA ONLY
selected it recognises your Iimited capability
INSTRUMENTATION
TCAS Inputs
The TCAS computer receives information on aircraft pressure
altitude from the air data computer via the Mode S
transponder
Replies to the transponder interrogations supply
relativebbearing, range and pressure altitude of other traffic
The radio altimeter is also an input so that inhibits, can be
applied at low altitude
INSTRUMENTATION
TCAS Inputs
TCAS has additional inputs from the IRU of aircraft pitch
attitude, roll attitude and heading
In addition, the TCAS receives input of flap position and from
the landing gear position lever, which allow it to control aerial
operation at low level
INSTRUMENTATION
TCAS Inputs
INSTRUMENTATION
Altitude Alerting System

JAR-OPs requires that all jets and all turboprops over 57A0
kg mass or with more than 9 seats to be equipped with an
altitude alerting system
The system must be capable of:
Alerting the crew on approaching the selected altitude
Alerting the crew by at least an aural signal when deviating
above or below the selected altitude
INSTRUMENTATION

The altitude alerting system warns the pilots that the aircraft
is either approaching a selected altitude or conversely that it
is deviating from a selected altitude. lt takes data on
barometric altitude from the ADCs and the reference height
from the autopilot control panel
Aural and visual warnings are generated when the alert is
triggered
INSTRUMENTATION

The altitude alert light comes on as the selected altitude is
approached and both light and tone are used to show
subsequent deviation
INSTRUMENTATION

No warning is given when the aircraft is outside 900 ft from
the selected altitude (typical Boeing system) or outside 750 ft
(Airbus system)
No warning is given when the aircraft ls closer than 300 ft
(Boeing) or 250 ft (Airbus) to the selected altitude
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION

It is important to recognise that warnings appear on both the
PFD altitude display and on the standard EICAS warning
panel
INSTRUMENTATION
Data Recorders
The two main data recorders that concern the pilot are the
flight data recorder (FDR), sometimes called a digital FDR
(DFDR) and the cockpit voice recorder (CVR)
All transport aircraft must carry these
There may also be a separate maintenance data recorder
that records many additional factors
ln the Airbus series this is called the aircraft integrated data
system (AIDS)
INSTRUMENTATION
Aircraft Integrated Data System

This records aircraft and engine data for fatigue analysis and
maintenance
AlDS is for the benefit of the operator and is not subject to the
same rules as the DFDR and the CVR
Data from the AIDS can be printed out for maintenance
analysis
ln some aircraft the data can be transmitted from the aircraft
in flight
INSTRUMENTATION
Aircraft Integrated Data System

Data collected encompasses:
Air conditioning
Auto flight
Flight controls
Fuel
Landing gear
Navigation equipment
Pneumatics
Engines
INSTRUMENTATION
The Digital Flight Data Recorder

The installation for the Airbus A320 can be taken as typical of
modern transport aircraft
It comprises:
A flight data interface unit (FDIU)
A digital flight data recorder
A three axis linear accelerometer (LA)
INSTRUMENTATION

The FDIU collects data from:
the SDACS(system data acquisition concentrators)
the DMCs(display management computers)
the FWCs(flight warning computers)
the clock
and event marker
The event marker is a push-button on the DFDR control panel
used to insert a time mark in the recording
INSTRUMENTATION

There is an exchange of information between the CFDS
(centralised fault display system) and the FDIU
The linear accelerometer measures acceleration in the
aircraft axes independently of the lRS
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION

The recording is automatically energised:
On the ground, five minutes after electrical power is first
energised
On the ground, with one engine running
ln the air, at all times
INSTRUMENTATION

On the ground it can be energised by pressing the GND CTL
push-button on the RCDR panel
It is de-energised on the ground five minutes after the second
engine is shut down
INSTRUMENTATION

The DFDR can store the last 25 hours of data
Data is recorded on a fireproof and shockproof tape and the
recorder is in a crash proof box
An underwater location beacon is attached to the box
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
JAR-OPS Requirements
The equipment described above meets the requirements of
JAR-OPS.
These are set out in JAR-OPS 1.715, 1.720 and 1,725, all
dated 1 July 2002
The requirements are complex
INSTRUMENTATION
ln summary:
- Aircraft of over 5700 kg mass or multi engined jets and
turboprops that seat more than 9 passengers must have a
digital flight data recorder that, with reference to a timescale,
records: Altitude, airspeed, heading, acceleration, pitch and
roll attitude, radio transmission keying, thrust or power on
each engine, configuration of lift and drag devices, air
temperature, use of automatic flight systems and angle of
attack
INSTRUMENTATION
ln summary:
- Aircraft of over 27 000 kg mass must record, in addition:
Positions of the primary flight controls, pitch trim, radio
altitude, primary navigation information displayed to the flight
crew, cockpit warnings and landing gear position
INSTRUMENTATION
Any novel or unique design parameters have to be included
The mass quoted is certificated take-off mass
The DFDR must be capable of recording before the aircraft is
capable of moving under its own power and must stop
automatically when the aircraft is no longer capable of moving
under its own power
INSTRUMENTATION
lt must retain the last 25 hours of recording, except that there
is a dispensation under JAR 1.715 for aircraft of less than
5700 kg mass first given a certificate of airworthiness after 1
April 1998 to retain only 10 hours
INSTRUMENTATION
JAR 25.1459 requires that the DFDR be mounted to minimise
the chance of damage
This is defined as "as far aft as possible, but not necessarily
aft of the pressure cabin and not where liable to crush
damage from rear mounted engines“
The DFDR must have an underwater locating device attached
INSTRUMENTATION
An aircraft may be dispatched with an unserviceable DFDR
only if:
lt is not reasonably practical to repair the DFDS before the
flight
The aircraft does not exceed a further 8 consecutive flights
with the DFDR unserviceable
Not more than 72 hours has elapsed since the DFDR was
first found to be unserviceable
INSTRUMENTATION
Cockpit Voice Recorders

JAR-OPS 1.700,1.705 and 1.710 all dated 1 July 2002
require the carriage of a cockpit voice recorder (CVR) in
aircraft that are multi-engine jets or turboprops with more
than 9 passenger seats or aircraft with a MTOM in excess of
5700 kg. Again, the regulations are complex
INSTRUMENTATION

In summary, the CVR must record:
 Voice communications transmitted from or received at the
flight deck
 The aural environment of the flight deck including the audio
data from each boom or mask microphone
 Voice communications from the flight deck using the aircraft
interphone system
INSTRUMENTATION

In summary, the CVR must record:
 Voice and/or audio signals identify navigation or approach
aids in use
 Voice communications from the flight deck on the PA
system, if fitted
INSTRUMENTATION

The CVR must retain the last two hours of recording, except
that aircraft below 5700 kg mass may retain 30 min
An underwater location device must be attach
INSTRUMENTATION

Stop and start times are as for the DFDR, but additionally if
power is available on the flight deck recording should start as
early as possible during the pre-start checks and end as late
as possible in the shutdown checks
Aircraft of less than 5700 kg mass may have the CVR
combined with the DFDR
INSTRUMENTATION

Dispatch with an unserviceable CVR is permitted under the
same rules as for the DFDR, but additionally if the CVR is
unserviceable the DFDR must be serviceable for dispatch
unless the equipment is a combined DFDR/CVR
INSTRUMENTATION
Preservation and Use of Recordings

JAR-OPS 1.160 dated 1 March 1998 sets out the rules for
keeping and using flight data recordings of both types:
After an accident all data must be preserved until released
by the investigating authority
After an incident or if directed by the authority data must be
preserved for 60 days
Data held for the times required in JARs above must be
preserved, except that the oldest t hour of DFDR time can
be erased for maintenance and testing
INSTRUMENTATION

CVR recordings may not be used for any purpose other than
accident or incident investigation without the consent of all
the crewmembers concerned
INSTRUMENTATION

DFDR recordings may not be used for any purpose other
than accident or incident investigation, except:
 By the operator for airworthiness or maintenance work
 When de-identified
 When disclosed under secure procedures
INSTRUMENTATION
POWERPLANT AND SYSTEM MONITORING
Powerplant and System Monitoring
INSTRUMENTATION
A large number of parameters are sensed on an aircraft in

order to provide an indication of aircraft performance and of
the safe operation of engine and aircraft systems
This chapter discusses how the sensors work and how the
parameters are displayed
INSTRUMENTATION
ln the 1950s and 1960s round or rectangular indicators were

fitted in the cockpit
Their mechanical or electromechanical working parts were
usually concealed behind the dial
INSTRUMENTATION
By the late 1970s new aircraft had similar looking indicators

to their predecessors, but the indicators themselves were
electrically driven by remote computers
INSTRUMENTATION
The introduction of glass cockpits in the 1980s allowed a

complete cockpit redesign and the possibility of being able to
choose which parameters are displayed
INSTRUMENTATION
Although displays differ, substantially the same parameters

are sensed in the powerplants and systems of modern
aircraft as in those of fifty years ago
INSTRUMENTATION
Colouring
Coloured arcs are standard on engine and system monitoring
instruments to indicate the normal (green) and cautionary
(yellow) ranges of operation with upper and lower limits
marked in red
The cautionary range is usually between the normal range
and the limits of the gauge
INSTRUMENTATION
RPM Measurement
There is a requirement to measure rotational speed of:
 Piston engine crankshafts, as an indication of power
 Gas turbine compressors and turbines, as an indication of
engine performance
 Variable pitch propellers, for correct operation and
synchronisation
 Helicopter rotors, to show correct operation
 Aircraft wheels, for anti-skid braking systems
INSTRUMENTATION
RPM Measurement
Rotatronal speed is measured by a tachometer, the word
comes from Greek and means a 'speed measure’
Sometimes the word can be applied to the whole measuring
and indicating system, sometimes just to the indicator
INSTRUMENTATION
RPM Measurement
As far as complete systems go, the three types of tachometer
in general use can be classified as:
 Mechanical
 Electrical
 Electronic
INSTRUMENTATION
The Mechanical Tachometer

The most primitive form of RPM measurement is the
mechanical tachometer, which is now found only on light
piston singles
INSTRUMENTATION

A direct drive in the form of a cable rotating within a stationary
sleeve is taken from the engine to the indicator
ln the instrument itself the drive turns a magnet in an
aluminium drag cup
The rotating magnet sets up eddy currents in the cup which
have their own magnetic field
INSTRUMENTATION

The interaction of the magnetic fields produces a turning
force between the rotating magnet and the aluminium drag
cup which is proportional to the rotational speed of the
magnet
The turning force is opposed by a hairspring
The higher the rotational speed the more the cup turns
against the spring
The cup is connected to a pointer on the face of the
instrument, which indicates RPM
INSTRUMENTATION

The maximum practical length of the drive is about 2 m
lt is this which Iimits the use of mechanical tachometers to
slngle engine aircraft where the engine is close to the cockpit
INSTRUMENTATION

The green sector on the dial indicates the normal operating
range and the yellow sector between 2000 and 2200 RPM
shows a caution area where prop vibration is likely
INSTRUMENTATION

Continuous operation in this range should be avoided
On some instruments this section is coloured red rather than
yellow
INSTRUMENTATION

The max RPM limit is shown by the red line, on this
instrument, at 2700 RPM
INSTRUMENTATION
The Electrical Tachometer

On more modern aircraft where a drive can be taken from the
accessory gearbox of an engine the RPM can be measured
by a small generator, called a tachogenerator, and displayed
on a remote cockpit indicator, the tachometer
INSTRUMENTATION

Tachogenerators can output :
DC(direct current)
single phase AC(alternating current)
or three phase AC
Tachogenerators operate independently of the aircraft
electrical supply
INSTRUMENTATION

The advantage of the
electrical tachometer over the
mechanical tachometer is that
it allows the engines to be
positioned further from the
cockpit
INSTRUMENTATION
DC Electrical Tachometer
The DC tachometer has, as the name suggests, a DC
generator attached to and driven by the engine
The DC output voltage increases as the RPM increases and
the voltage is used to drive a moving coil indicator in the
cockpit, essentially a voltmeter calibrated in RPM
INSTRUMENTATION
DC Electrical Tachometer
The DC tachometer is a relatively simple system but it has
two disadvantages:
Firstly the DC generator requires a commutator and carbon
brushes to make the electrical contacts, this leads to wear
and electrical sparking which can cause radio interference
The second disadvantage is that line resistance causes
voltage loss in transmission. This can cause an indication
error as the instrument reacts to voltage
INSTRUMENTATION
The Single Phase AC Electrical Tachometer

A solution to the problems of wear and sparking of the DC
tachogenerator is to replace the DC generator with a single
phase brushless AC generator
The AC output is then rectified to DC. Once again, the
voltage is proportional to RPM so the same form of indicator
is used as in a DC electrical tachometer
INSTRUMENTATION
The Single Phase AC Electrical Tachometer

The single phase AC electrical tachometer does not create
radio interference and the tachogenerator suffers from less
wear but, because the indicator reacts to changes in voltage,
it is still subject to indication errors caused by voltage loss in
transmission
INSTRUMENTATION
The Three Phase AC Electrical Tachometer

ln this design the brushless AC generator produces a three
phase alternating current
The AC frequency varies with RPM
The three phase AC is carried to the instrument where it
drives a motor called a 'squirrel cage’ motor at the instrument
INSTRUMENTATION

The motor at the instrument drives a magnet rotating in an
aluminium cup just like that used on mechanical tachometers
Eddy currents pull the cup, sometimes called a drag cup,
round against the restraining force of a hairspring to move the
indicator needle and display RPM
INSTRUMENTATION

The indicator element itself, which is common to both the
direct drive tachometer and the three phase electrical
tachometer, is sometimes called a magnetic tachometer
Squirrel cage motors normally rotate slightly slower than the
AC generator that ultimately drives them, the 'slip' depending
on the torque required
INSTRUMENTATION

The torque required here is very low so the motor rotates at
almost the same frequency as the generator that provides the
AC lt may therefore be described as a 'three phase
synchronous motor‘
INSTRUMENTATION

The advantage of three phase electrical tachometers is that,
because frequency is sensed rather than voltage, voltage
loss in transmission is not a problem. The disadvantage, if
there is one, is the extra wiring required to carry three phases
INSTRUMENTATION
The Electronic Tachometer

All the tachometers that we have discussed so far need a
drive from an engine gearbox
Gas turbine engines usually have two or three spools, each
spool made up of a compressor and turbine, which can rotate
at different speeds
Only one, the spool holding the high pressure compressor
(HP) is likely to have a gearbox
INSTRUMENTATION

To overcome this issue, and to enable the very high RPM of
jet engines to be sensed without the risk of mechanical
failure, the electronic tachometer senses RPM without any
direct contact with the rotating parts of the engine
INSTRUMENTATION

The electronic tachometer uses a probe, which is a small
electromagnet
INSTRUMENTATION

to detect the passage of the teeth on a notched wheel
mounted on the compressor or turbine shaft by the changes
induced in its magnetic field
INSTRUMENTATION

The probe is called an inductive probe, and therefore this
system is sometimes called an inductive probe tachometer
The whole assembly may also be called a phonic wheel
INSTRUMENTATION

The raw output from the probe is a rough alternating current,
each cycle being created by the passage of one toot
Both the AC voltage and frequency increase as RPM
increases
INSTRUMENTATION

The raw AC signal is processed into digital pulses, the
number of pulses a second indicating the engine RPM
INSTRUMENTATION

Because the instrument reacts to frequency of pulses, not
voltage, it is not affected by line resistance
Digital signals are also suitable as an input to an engine
management computer
INSTRUMENTATION

The electronic tachometer requires an external power supply
to the inductive probe and for signal processing
Power failure is indicated by a 'power off' flag or by the
indicator needle moving off the scale
INSTRUMENTATION
Turbine Displays
With a turbine engine, the RPM display is calibrated as a
percentage of the maximum
The indicator may have coloured arcs on it that show normal
readings in green, caution areas in amber and overspeed
limits in red
INSTRUMENTATION
Turbine Displays
More modern instruments also have an overspeed pointer
fitted
This stationary pointer is initially positioned at the maximum
RPM limit
INSTRUMENTATION
Turbine Displays
lf this limit is exceeded the RPM needle carries the overspeed
pointer with it and leaves it at the maximum RPM achieved
The overspeed pointer can not be reset in flight
INSTRUMENTATION
Turbine Displays
Where a gas turbine engine has several spools RPM is
indicated for each one separately
The dials are labelled N1, N2 and N3 for the speed (N) of
each spool
INSTRUMENTATION
Turbine Displays
On a gas turbine engine the compressor normally rotates at
the same speed as the turbine driving it, but occasionally
engines have compressors that are geared from the turbine
drive or have separate power turbines
In these cases the cockpit indicator will be labelled turbine
speed
INSTRUMENTATION
Turbine Displays
Gas turbine engines will nearly always use electronic
tachometers but, just occasionally, a three phase electrical
tachometer driven from the gearbox may be used instead
INSTRUMENTATION
The Synchroscope
The synchroscope is used to balance the RPM of multi
engine turboprop, piston and, occasionally, jet aeroplane
engines in order to reduce noise levels
INSTRUMENTATION
The Synchroscope
One engine is designated the master and the relative speed
of the other engines is displayed on an indicator so the RPM
can be manually adjusted
Displays vary, but typically the relative RPM is shown by little
rotating propellers
lf they are rotating clockwise the RPM of that engine needs to
be reduced, if they are rotating anticlockwise it must be
increased
INSTRUMENTATION
The Synchroscope
The synchroscope works directly from the signal sent to the
RPM gauges
INSTRUMENTATION
GYROSCOPES
INSTRUMENTATION

BAA Instrumentation Slides

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BAA Instrumentation Slides

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ATPL COURSE

The Instrumentation chapters of the course deal with the:

simple and complex compass systems

finally modern integrated navigation and flight instrument

In each case, we are interested in:

the principles of operation

the management and use of the systems

and the implications of whole or partial system failure

WHY DO WE NEED THIS?

EXAM & TESTS

Principles and Sensors

The Pitot Static System

An aircraft stationary on the ground will be acted on from all

As it starts to move through the air, it encounters wind

This dynamic pressure is proportional to the aircraft's speed

The formula for dynamic pressure is:

Dynamic pressure = ½ ρV^2

Static pressure is atmospheric pressure

Dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy of the air

Any system that detected the pitot pressure acting on the

Pitot static systems are combination sensors that detect firstly

The difference between the two will give us a measurement

Total pressure = dynamic + static

Dynamic pressure = total pressure – static

This is known as Bernoulli's equation or principle and

Figure shows a diagram of a system using separate pitot and

The holes in the static tube are arranged so as to deliberately

The movement of the diaphragm is a function of the

ln simple systems the two sensing heads are often combined

The pressure head is mounted on a mast to move it far

A heater element protects the sensor from blockage due to

Errors in the measurement of pitot or static pressure will bring

To safeguard against this, large aircraft with two pilots, will

There will be selectable reserve system

A typical large aircraft

Pitot/static heads are

They are used to supply the standby instruments and on

On some small aircraft the alternate static vents are inside

Static is balanced and

Pitot Static Errors

Any errors in the detected static pressure will give false

The sum total of this is called position error, sometimes called

Two sub-categories of position error are:

Pressure error includes predictable configuration error

Although static sources are sited as far as possible to be

These errors will have been established in flight testing,

Manoeuvres - rolling, pitching or yawing – and random gusts

Air Temperature Measurement

ln light/small aircraft the probe is normally the bimetallic type

This type of probe is sufficiently accurate for low speed

Large aircraft systems use two different temperature

Static air temperature is just the ordinary air temperature

Total air temperature is SAT plus the dynamic heating brought

ln the same way that total head pressure is static pressure

The normal procedure is to bring the air to rest and measure

lf the thermometer is less than 100% efficient in recording the

This is categorised as the efficiency of the "recovery" of the

A thermometer with an 80% recovery will record SAT plus

This must then be corrected to TAT using a calibration card.

TAT can either be directly measured or be calculated from a

The temperature rise is a function only of aircraft true

Navigation computers for high-speed aircraft have a scale

A CRP 5 shows that at 200 KT TAS the temperature rise is

The common formulae for computing ram rise need some