Temperature Sensors

Prof. Nelio C. Altoveros IMSP Physics Division

Definition of Temperature
For most people, temperature is described by the feelings of hot and cold given by the subjective responses of the human body.

Definition of Temperature
In science and technology, the quantitative definition of temperature comes from the concept of thermodynamics. One approach uses the notion of efficiency of an ideal reversible heat engine which is defined as

efficiency = (1 T1/T2)
where T1/T2 is the ratio of two absolute temperatures, one of the heat source and the other of the exhaust of the engine.

Definition of Temperature
Another definition of temperature came from the definition of the Kelvin which gives a figure of 273.16 K for the triple point of water as the reference temperature.

Definition of Temperature
Another definition is based on a study of the motion of molecules that gives a value of

Ek = 3/2 RT
for the kinetic energy per mole of an ideal gas.

Definition of Temperature
Neither ideal heat engines nor ideal gases exist in nature. The experiments needed to measure true temperatures from these definitions are long and expensive, and are only carried out by national standards laboratories as part of their continuing improvement of standards. For everyday use, the range of fixed point temperatures can be adopted.

T (Kelvin) Standard Triple point of water Primary Triple point of hydrogen Boiling point of hydrogen at 25/76 atm pressure Boiling point of hydrogen at 1 atm Boiling point of neon at 1 atm Triple point of oxygen Boiling point of oxygen at 1 atm Melting point of ice at 1 atm Boiling point of water at 1 atm Melting point of zinc at 1 atm Melting point of silver at 1 atm 273.16 13.81 17.042 20.28 27.102 54.361 90.188 273.15 373.15 692.73 1,235.58

t (rC) 0.01 -259.34 -256.108 -252.87 246.048 218.789 182.962 0.00 100.00 419.58 1,064.43

Uncertainty (Kelvin) exact by definition 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.005 0.03 0.2

Definition of Temperature
These values are used for calibration of secondary standard thermometers, as they are easily reproduced in the laboratory.

Active and Passive Sensors

Sensors can be classified as y passive y active

Active and Passive Sensors

A passive sensor is one in which a material change is produced in the sensor by the variation of an external parameter. This parameter must then be monitored externally (usually by an electrical circuit).

Active and Passive Sensors

For example, the platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) is a passive sensor. The external parameter is temperature and the material change is the resistance of the platinum metal. The external monitoring circuit is an ohm-meter or a bridge circuit.

Active and Passive Sensors

A problem common to passive sensors is change produced by the monitoring circuit. The bridge circuit for the PRT for example can cause self-heating producing a temperature change.

Active and Passive Sensors

Examples of passive sensors are photoconductors, capacitive displacement gauges, etc.

Active and Passive Sensors

Active sensors generate energy when the external parameter varies. The thermocouple is an active sensor employing the Seebeck Effect. The Seebeck Effect leads to an emf being generated in a circuit with two intermetallic junctions at different temperatures.

Active and Passive Sensors

In principle, the Seebeck effect voltage can be used to drive a voltmeter and no external power is needed. However, as common with all active sensors, the thermocouple emf is small a few QV per degree of temperature difference and its value is limited by the physics of the system. Extra amplifying circuit is still essential to give an easily readable display, or a signal compatible with analog to digital converter circuits.

Active and Passive Sensors

Using the transducer directly to run a voltmeter would create problems of potential drop in connecting leads and of self-heating. Potentiometric or high impedance operational amplifier techniques are needed to reduce the junction current as much as possible.

Active and Passive Sensors

Examples of active sensors are photodiodes, piezoelectric devices, etc.

Active and Passive Sensors

Another kind of sensor is the integrated circuit (IC) type. These sensors can be active or passive. Modern device technology permits the inclusion of many circuit elements on a single slice of silicon or other semiconductor. The sensing device and associated amplifying and other circuitry can be made in a single package.

Active and Passive Sensors

An example of a solid-state temperature detector is the AD590 IC. The sensing element of this IC is a forwardbiased junction diode which has a voltage drop proportional to absolute temperature:

kT I Vf ! ln e Io

Active and Passive Sensors

Integrated circuit sensors are available for a number of physical variables (magnetic field Hall effect sensors, pressure integrated strain gauges, etc.)

The Measurement of Thermodynamic Temperature

Temperature is measured indirectly (as most of the physical parameters). It is necessary to find a physical quantity which is known to vary consistently with temperature, then to derive a relationship between the change in this quantity and a corresponding change in thermodynamic temperature.

Gas Thermometry
The most widely used method of measuring temperature is gas thermometry. The method is based on Boyle s law for a perfect gas:

pV = nRT

Gas Thermometry
For a given number of moles of gas (n), it is necessary to measure p1V1 and p0V0 to relate the temperatures at T1 and T0, that is

T1 p1V1 ! T0 p0V0

Gas Thermometry
Unfortunately, there is no ideal gases and so corrections must be made for this. With painstaking care, temperatures may be measured fairly accurately from liquid helium temperature (4.2 K) to the freezing point of gold (1336 K).

Noise Thermometry
An attractive alternative to the rather elaborate gas thermometers is to make use of the temperature of Johnson Noise in resistors.

Noise Thermometry
Nyquist, using thermodynamic arguments, showed that the mean square noise voltage developed across a conductor is related to its temperatures by

V2 = 4kTR(v
One technique used is to amplify the noise voltage of a probe resistor and pass the signal through a bandpass filter to define bandwidth (v.

Noise Thermometry
A resistor R0 at a known temperature T0 is then adjusted in value until the noise voltage from it is the same as that of the probe resistor Rp. The temperature is then given by

Tp

R0 T0 Rp

Optical Pyrometry
Above the freezing point of gold, optical pyrometry is used to establish the temperature scale.

Optical Pyrometry
There are number of ways in which the radiation from a body may be used to measure temperature. We may use the radiated power at single frequency, the ratio of the radiated powers at two frequencies, the frequency of maximum radiated power (Wien s displacement law, 0mTm=const), or the total radiated power (Planck s radiation law, P w T4).

Resistive Temperature Transducers

The previous temperature transducers, while employing simple principles, require elaborate and expensive measurement apparatus. For industrial and most scientific applications where absolute accuracy is not a prime concern, less expensive transducers may be used.

Resistance Thermometry
In general, the resistance of metals increases with increasing temperature, while that of semiconductors and insulators decreases.

Resistance Thermometry
In the case of the metals, this increase of resistance with temperature can be explained in terms of the conductivity W of conduction band electrons in the metal. At higher temperatures, the electrons collide more often with vibrating metal ions and their mobility decreases.

Resistance Thermometry
This effect is overwhelmed in semiconductors by thermal generation of electrons and holes. This leads to an exponential increase in charge carrier concentration and the typical exponential decrease in resistance of a thermistor.

The Platinum Resistance Thermometer

Of the metallic resistance thermometers, platinum is universally employed in the temperature range 90 K to 900 K.

The Platinum Resistance Thermometer

Over this range, the relationship of resistance to temperature is defined by the Callender-Van Dusen equation
RT T T T T ! 1  E T  H  1  1  F 3 R 1 1 1 1
where RT is the resistance at temperature T R0 is the resistance at 0 rC
E, F and H are characteristic constants for each sensor

(typically E = 0.003925, H = 1.49 and F = 0 for T < 0 rC;

F = 0.11 for T >0 rC.)

The Platinum Resistance Thermometer

RT T T T T  1 ! 1  E T  H  1  F 3 R0 100 100 100 100

Below 90 K, this equation is inaccurate, however, resistance thermometers as purchased are usually calibrated to 20 K or may be calibrated by measuring the resistance at three known temperatures.

The Platinum Resistance Thermometer

The Platinum Resistance Thermometer

The resistance of a platinum thermometer is normally measured in a bridge circuit where compensation for the resistance change in bridge leads is accounted for.

The Carbon Resistance Thermometer

Traditionally, carbon resistors have been used as low temperature thermometers (below 30 K). The resistance increases rapidly as the temperature is reduced so that an Allen-Bradley resistor which is nominally 10 ; at 10 rC will be approximately 14 ; at 77 K (liquid N2 temperature).

The Carbon Resistance Thermometer

The resistance R is related to the temperature T by the relationship

B log 10 R  ! A log 10 R T

The Thermistor
Thermistors are beads of semiconducting material usually made of sintered metal oxides. They are small (therefore of low heat capacity), have a high temperature coefficient (typically 4% per rC at room temperature) and are physically rugged. A wide range of resistance values are available at temperatures in the range 0 to 200 rC which facilitates matching with the associated electronic equipment.

The Thermistor
The relationship between resistance R and Kelvin temperature T is approximately exponential.

RT = aeb/T

The Thermistor
The temperature coefficient of resistance is

I dR b ! R dT T2
and most thermistors are of negative temperature coefficient (NTC) type.

The Thermistor
Some materials show a restricted range of positive temperature coefficient (PTC) behavior.

The Thermistor
While thermistors may have a significant sensitivity advantage, there are several disadvantages
y The temperature range for a particular thermistor is

limited.


Manufacturer s calibrations are not as precise as metal resistance thermometers. Thermistors exhibit aging effects and so are not as stable with time as metal resistance thermometers.

The Thermistor
The resistance of a thermistor may be measured with a simple bridge circuit as lead compensation is unnecessary, however, for most applications, thermistors are used in a continuous mode by monitoring the current with a constant voltage applied.

Thermocouples
If two dissimilar metals (A and B) are joined together, a contact potential will exist between them. This contact potential is a result of the difference in electron densities between the two metals and as a function of the junction temperature (T1 and T2).

Thermocouples
In a circuit, which would be necessary to measure this contact potential, two junctions exist simultaneously, hence there is a difference in contact potential between the two junctions. This potential difference has a quadratic form

I = aT + bT2
where T = T2 T1, the difference between the two junction temperatures.

Thermocouples
Used as a thermometer, the usual measuring circuits for thermocouples are shown in the figure.

Thermocouples
In (a), the terminals of the measurement instrument provide the other junction. If these terminals are at different temperatures, then an error will be introduced.

Thermocouples
In (b), this problem has been overcome by introducing a further junction at 0 rC in such a way that similar metal leads may be taken to the measurement instrument.

Thermocouples
In (c), copper leads can be taken to the measuring instrument, for maximum accuracy (junction dissimilarity minimized at the voltmeter).

Thermocouples
The materials to be used depend on a number of factors: temperature range, desired sensitivity, desired linearity or response. One of the most useful combinations is Chromel-Alumel which is fairly linear to ~400 K and has a sensitivity of ~40 QV/K. At higher temperatures platinum/platinum-rhodium (10%, 13% or 20%) can be used, but these have very much reduced sensitivities ~6 QV/K.

Thermocouples
Sources of Error


Voltaic effects can be serious if insulation is porous and can form a chemical cell with moisture. Parasitic emf s are caused by junctions at varying temperatures. Corrosion may introduce impurities into the thermocouple junction. wires will generate anomalies which behave as partial junctions.

y Kinks and strain introduced into the thermocouple

Thermocouples
Sources of Error (continuation)
y Radiation effects.
 

Conductive errors occur. Time response of a thermocouple can vary widely.

Thank You!!