Chapter 20

Electrochemistry

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 Synopsis of Assigning Oxidation Numbers
1. Elements = 0
2. Monatomic ion = charge
3. F: –1
4. O: –2 (unless peroxide = –1)
5. H: +1 (unless a metal hydride = –1)
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers equals
the overall charge (0 in a compound).

Oxidation Numbers

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 Oxidation Numbers
• If the oxidation number
increases for an element,
that element is oxidized.
• If the oxidation number
decreases for an element,
that element is reduced.

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 Oxidation and Reduction
• A species is oxidized when it loses electrons.
– Zinc loses two electrons, forming the Zn2+ ion.
• A species is reduced when it gains electrons.
– H+ gains an electron, forming H2.
• An oxidizing agent causes something else to be oxidized (H+)
• A reducing agent causes something else to be reduced (Zn).

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Oxidizing Agent • Reducing Agent
– Gets Reduced – Gets Oxidized
– Gains Electrons – Looses Electrons

𝑃𝑏+ 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑂 3 → 𝑃𝑏 𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑂 2
Oxidization Oxidization Oxidization Oxidization
Number = 0 Number = +5 Number = +2 Number = +3
Ox # ⇧ Ox # ⇩
Gets Oxidized Gets Reduced
Reducing Agent Oxidizing Agent

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
The nickel–cadmium (nicad) battery uses the following redox
reaction to generate electricity:
Cd(s) + NiO2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Cd(OH)2(s) + Ni(OH)2(s)
• Identify the substances that are oxidized and reduced.
• Indicate the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.

Ox # ⇧ Ox # ⇩
Gets Oxidized Gets Reduced
Reducing Agent Oxidizing Agent

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Identify the substances that are oxidized and reduced.
• Indicate the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.

2 H2O(l) + Al(s) + MnO4–(aq) → Al(OH)4–(aq) + MnO2(s)

Ox # = 0 Ox # = +7 Ox # = +3 Ox # = +3
Ox # ⇧ Ox # ⇩
Gets Oxidized Gets Reduced
Reducing Agent Oxidizing Agent

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 Balancing Redox Equations
• Half-Reactions
– The oxidation and reduction are written and balanced
separately.
– Use them to balance a redox reaction.
– For example, when Sn2+ and Fe3+ react,

Half-Reaction Method
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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
1) Make two half-reactions
(oxidation and reduction).
2) Balance atoms other than O and H.
Then, balance O and H using H2O / H+.
3) Add electrons to balance charges.
4) Multiply by common factor to make electrons in
half-reactions equal.
5) Add the half-reactions.
6) Simplify by dividing by common factor or
converting H+ to OH– if basic.
7) Double-check atoms and charges balance!

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Consider the reaction between MnO4– and C2O42–:
But overall is -1 But overall is -2

MnO4–(aq) + C2O42–(aq)  Mn2+(aq) + CO2(aq)

-2 x 4 = -8 -2 x 4 = -8 -2 x 2 = -4
Mn = +8 C = +4
So Mn = +7 So C = +3 So C = +4

• Assigning oxidation numbers shows that…

– Mn is reduced (+7  +2)
– C is oxidized (+3  +4).

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Oxidation Half-Reaction
C2O42–  CO2
To balance the carbon, add a coefficient of 2:
C2O42–  2 CO2
The oxygen is now balanced as well.
To balance the charge, add two electrons to the
right side:
C2O42–  2 CO2 + 2e–

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Reduction Half-Reaction
MnO4–  Mn2+
The manganese is balanced; to balance the oxygen, add
four water to the right side:
MnO4–  Mn2+ + 4 H2O
To balance the hydrogen, add 8H+ to the left side:
8 H+ + MnO4–  Mn2+ + 4 H2O
To balance the charge, add 5e– to the left side:
5e– + 8 H+ + MnO4–  Mn2+ + 4 H2O

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Combining the Half-Reactions
C2O42–  2 CO2 + 2e–
5e– + 8 H+ + MnO4–  Mn2+ + 4 H2O
To make the number of electrons equal on each side,
multiply the first reaction by 5 and the second by 2:
5 C2O42–  10 CO2 + 10e–
10e– + 16 H+ + 2 MnO4–  2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O
Combine these:
10e– + 16 H+ + 2 MnO4– + 5 C2O42– 
2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O + 10 CO2 +10e–
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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Combining the Half-Reactions
10e– + 16 H+ + 2 MnO4– + 5 C2O42– 
2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O + 10 CO2 +10e–
The only thing that appears on both sides is the
electrons. Cancel them:
16 H+ + 2 MnO4– + 5 C2O42– 
2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O + 10 CO2
(Verify that the equation is balanced by counting atoms
and charges on each side of the equation.)

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Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution
• A reaction that occurs in basic solution can be
balanced as if it occurred in acid.
• Once the equation is balanced, add OH– to each
side to “neutralize” the H+ in the equation and create
water in its place.
• If this produces water on both sides,
subtract water from each side so it appears on only
one side of the equation.

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method

Cr2O72–(aq) + Cl–(aq) → Cr3+(aq) + Cl2(g) (acidic solution)

Cr2O72–(aq) + Cl–(aq) → Cr3+(aq) + Cl2(g)

+6 -1 +3 0
Reduced Oxidized

Oxidation Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g)

Reduction Cr2O72–(aq) → Cr3+(aq)

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Oxidation Half-Reaction
Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g)
2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g)
2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e–

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Reduction Half-Reaction
Cr2O72–(aq) → Cr3+(aq)
Cr2O72–(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq)
Cr2O72–(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l)
14 H+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l)
6e-+14 H+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l)

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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Combining the Half-Reactions
2 Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e–
6e- + 14 H+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) → 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l)
To make the number of electrons equal on each side,
multiply the first reaction by 6 and the second by 2:
12Cl–(aq) → 6Cl2(g) + 12e–
12e- + 28 H+(aq) + 2Cr2O72–(aq) → 4 Cr3+(aq) + 14 H2O(l)
Combine these (reduced):
6e- + 14 H+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) + 6Cl–(aq) 
2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l) + 3Cl2(g) + 6e–
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Balancing Redox Equations: The Half-Reactions Method
Combining the Half-Reactions
6e- + 14 H+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) + 6Cl–(aq) 
2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l) + 3Cl2(g) + 6e–
The only thing that appears on both sides is the
electrons. Cancel them:
14 H+(aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) + 6Cl–(aq) 
2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l) + 3Cl2(g)
(Verify that the equation is balanced by counting atoms
and charges on each side of the equation.)

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 Voltaic Cells
• In spontaneous redox reactions,
electrons are transferred and
energy is released.
• That energy can do work if the
electrons flow through an
external device.
• This is a voltaic cell.

Voltaic Cells

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 Voltaic Cells

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 Voltaic Cells
• In the cell, electrons leave the anode and flow through the wire to the cathode.
• Cations are formed in the anode compartment.
• As the electrons reach the cathode, cations in solution are attracted to the now
negative cathode.
• The cations gain electrons and are deposited as metal on the cathode.

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 Electromotive Force (emf)
• The potential difference between the anode and cathode in a
cell is called the electromotive force (emf).
• It is also called the cell potential and is designated Ecell.
• Units are volts (V)
– One volt is one joule per coulomb (1 V = 1 J/C).

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 • The cell potential at standard conditions can be found
through this equation:
E°cell = E°red (cathode) – E°red (anode)
• Their reference is called the standard hydrogen electrode
(SHE).
• By definition as the standard, the reduction potential for
hydrogen is 0 V:
2 H+(aq, 1M) + 2e–  H2(g, 1 atm)

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
• Reduction potentials
for many electrodes
have been measured
and tabulated.
• The values are
compared to the
reduction of hydrogen
as a standard.
• The cathode will
always have a
greater Eored value

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
• For the anode in this cell, E°red = –0.76 V (Oxidation)
• For the cathode, E°red = +0.34 V (Reduction)
• So, for the cell, E°cell = E°red (cathode) – E°red (anode)
= +0.34 V – (–0.76 V)
= +1.10 V

-0.76V +0.34V
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 Standard Reduction Potentials
The standard cell potential is 1.46 V for a voltaic cell based on
the following half-reactions:

In+(aq) → In3+(aq) + 2 e–
Br2(l) + 2 e– → 2 Br– (aq)

Using Table 20.1, calculate E°red for the reduction of In3+ to In+.

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
The standard cell potential is 1.46 V for a voltaic cell based on the
following half-reactions:

Br2(l) + 2 e– → 2 Br– (aq) Eored = +1.06V

Eocell = +1.46V

In+(aq) → In3+(aq) + 2 e– = Br2(l) + 2 e– → 2 Br– (aq) Eored - Eocell

Br2(l) + 2 e– → 2 Br– (aq) Eored = +1.06V
- Eocell = +1.46V

In3+ to In+ Eored = -0.40V

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
Use Table 20.1 to calculate Eocell for the reaction:

Cr2O72– (aq) + 14 H+ (aq) + 6 I– (aq) →

2 Cr3+ (aq) + 3 I2 (s) + 7 H2O(l)

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
Cr2O72– (aq) + 14 H+ (aq) + 6 I– (aq) →
2 Cr3+ (aq) + 3 I2 (s) + 7 H2O(l)

Cr2O72– (aq) + 14 H+ (aq) + 6 e- → 2 Cr3+ (aq) + 7 H2O(l)

Eored = +1.33V

I2 (s) + 2 e- → 2 I– (aq)
Eored = +0.54V

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
Cr2O72– (aq) + 14 H+ (aq) + 6 I– (aq) →
2 Cr3+ (aq) + 3 I2 (s) + 7 H2O(l)

Eored = +1.33V (Reduction)

Eored = +0.54V (Oxidation)

Eocell = Eored (cathode) – Eored (anode)

= +1.33 V – +0.54 V = 0.79 V
Since Eored is an intensive property, stoichiometry is
unaffected and values do not have to be reversed.

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
Using data in Table 20.1, calculate the standard emf for a cell
that employs the overall cell reaction:

2 Al(s) + 3 I2(s) → 2 Al3+(aq) + 6 I–(aq)

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
2 Al(s) + 3 I2(s) → 2 Al3+(aq) + 6 I–(aq)

Al3+(aq) + 3 e- → Al(s)
Eored = -1.66V (Oxidation)

I2(s) + 2 e- → 2 I–(aq)
Eored = +0.54V (Reduction)

Eocell = Eored (cathode) – Eored (anode)

= +0.54 V – -1.66 V = +2.20 V

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
A voltaic cell is based on the two standard half-reactions

Cd2+(aq) + 2 e– → Cd(s)
Sn2+(aq) + 2 e– → Sn(s)

Use data in Appendix E to determine which half-reaction occurs

at the cathode and which occurs at the anode and the standard
cell potential.

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
Cd2+(aq) + 2 e– → Cd(s)
Eored = -0.403V
(Oxidation) = Anode

Sn2+(aq) + 2 e– → Sn(s)
Eored = -0.136V
(Reduction) = Cathode

Eocell = Eored (cathode) – Eored (anode)

= -0.136 V – -0.403 V = +0.267 V

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
A voltaic cell is based on a Co2+/Co half-cell and a
AgCl/Ag half-cell.

What half-reaction occurs at the anode and what is the

standard cell potential?

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 Standard Reduction Potentials
Co2+/Co
Eored = -0.277V
(Oxidation) = Anode

AgCl/Ag
Eored = +0.222V
(Reduction) = Cathode

Eocell = Eored (cathode) – Eored (anode)

= +0.222 V – -0.277 V = +0.499 V

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 Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
• The more positive the value of
E°red, the greater the tendency

for reduction.
• The strongest oxidizers have
the most positive E°red.
• The strongest reducers have
the most negative E°red.

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 EMF, Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
• Spontaneous redox reactions produce a positive cell
potential, or emf.
• E° = E°red (reduction) – E°red (oxidation)
• Note that this is true for ALL redox reactions, not only
for voltaic cells.
• Since Gibbs free energy is the measure of spontaneity,
positive emf corresponds to -ΔG.
• ΔG = –nFE
– F is the Faraday constant, 96,485 C/mol.

Nernst Equation

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 EMF, Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
ΔG° = –nFE° = –RT ln K

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 EMF, Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
Use the standard reduction potentials in Table 20.1
to calculate the standard free-energy change, ∆G°,
and the equilibrium constant, K, at 298 K for the reaction:

4 Ag(s) + O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) → 4 Ag+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

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 EMF, Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
Calculate the standard free-energy change, ∆G°,
and the equilibrium constant, K, at 298 K for the reaction:
O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4e- → 2 H2O(l) Eored = +1.23V
(Reduction)
4 Ag(s) → 4 Ag+(aq) + 4e- Eored = +0.80V
(Oxidation)
Eocell = Eored (cathode) – Eored (anode)
= +1.23 V – +0.80 V = +0.43 V

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 EMF, Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
Calculate the standard free-energy change, ∆G°,
and the equilibrium constant, K, at 298 K for the reaction:
Eocell = +0.43 V
°
n=4 ∆ 𝐺=− 𝑛𝐹 𝐸
F = 96,485
∆ 𝐺=( 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) ( 96,485 𝐽 / 𝑉 −𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) ( 0.43 𝑉 )
𝐽5
∆ 𝐺=− 1.7 𝑥 10 =− 𝟏𝟕𝟎 𝒌𝑱 / 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑚𝑜𝑙

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 EMF, Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
Calculate the standard free-energy change, ∆G°,
and the equilibrium constant, K, at 298 K for the reaction:
Eocell = +0.43 V ∆ 𝐺=− 𝑅𝑇 𝑙𝑛𝐾
DG = -170 kJ/mol
∆𝐺
𝑙𝑛𝐾 =
− 𝑅𝑇
5
−1.7 𝑥 10 𝐽 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑙𝑛𝐾 = =68.6
− ( 8.314 )( 298 )
68.6 𝟐𝟗
𝐾 =𝑒 =𝟔 .𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎

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 Nernst Equation
• ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln Q
• So, –nFE = nFE° + RT ln Q
• Dividing both sides by –nF = Nernst equation:

𝑅𝑇 ° 2.303 𝑅𝑇
°
𝐸=𝐸 − 𝑙𝑛𝑄 𝐸=𝐸 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄
𝑛𝐹 also: 𝑛𝐹

• Using standard R, T, and F:

0.0592
°
𝐸=𝐸 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄
𝑛

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 Nernst Equation
Calculate the emf at 298 K generated by a voltaic cell in which
the reaction is:
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 I–(aq) →
2 Cr3+(aq) + 3 I2(s) + 7 H2O(l)
when
[Cr2O72–] = 2.0 M
[H+] = 1.0 M
[I–] = 1.0 M
[Cr3+] = 1.0 × 10–5 M
Eo = 0.79V
n=6

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 Nernst Equation
Calculate the emf at 298 K generated by a voltaic cell in which
the reaction is:
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 I–(aq) →
2 Cr3+(aq) + 3 I2(s) + 7 H2O(l)
when
[Cr2O72–] = 2.0 M
[H+] = 1.0 M 𝑄=¿ ¿ ¿
[I–] = 1.0 M 2
[Cr3+] = 1.0 × 10–5 M [ 1 𝑥 10 −5
𝑀]
𝑄=
Eo = 0.79V 14
[ 2.0 𝑀 ] [ 1.0 𝑀 ] [ 1.0 𝑀 ] 6

n=6
−11
𝑄=5 𝑥 10

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 Nernst Equation
Calculate the emf at 298 K generated by a voltaic cell in which
the reaction is:
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 I–(aq) →
2 Cr3+(aq) + 3 I2(s) + 7 H2O(l)
when
[Cr2O72–] = 2.0 M 0.592
°
𝐸=𝐸 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄
[H+] = 1.0 M 𝑛
[I–] = 1.0 M
[Cr3+] = 1.0 × 10–5 M 0.592
𝐸=( 0.79 ) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 5 x 10-11 )
Eo = 0.79V 6
n=6
Q = 5x10-11
𝐸=𝟎 .𝟖𝟗𝑽

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 Concentration Cells
• The Nernst equation implies that a cell could be created
that has the same substance at both electrodes.
– A Concentration Cell.
• For such a cell, E°cell would be 0, but Q would not.
• Therefore, as long as the concentrations are different,
E will not be 0.

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 Batteries and Fuel Cells
Electrochemistry can be applied as follows:
• Batteries:
– Portable, self-contained electrochemical power source that
consists of one or more voltaic cells.
– Primary cells (non-rechargeable)
– Secondary cells (rechargeable).
• Prevention of corrosion (“rust-proofing”)
• Electrolysis

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 Batteries and Fuel Cells
Lead–acid battery
• Reactants and products are solids
• Q is 1
• Potential is independent of
concentrations
• Made with lead and sulfuric acid

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 Batteries and Fuel Cells
• Alkaline battery: most common primary battery.

Cathode 2 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 ( 𝑠 )+2 𝐻 2 𝑂 ( 𝑙 ) +2 𝑒− → 2 𝑀𝑛𝑂 ( 𝑂𝐻 )2 ( 𝑠 )+ 2 𝑂𝐻 − ( 𝑎𝑞 )

Anode 𝐶𝑑 ( 𝑠 )+ 2 𝑂𝐻 − ( 𝑎𝑞 ) → 𝐶𝑑 ( 𝑂𝐻 )2 ( 𝑠 ) +2 𝑒 −

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 Batteries and Fuel Cells
Ni–Cd and Ni–metal hydride batteries
• Lightweight
• Rechargeable
• Cd is toxic and heavy
– Hydrides are replacing it.

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 Batteries and Fuel Cells
Lithium-ion batteries
• Rechargeable
• Light
• Produce more voltage
than Ni-based batteries.

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 Fuel Cells
• When a fuel is burned, the energy created
can be converted to electrical energy.
• Usually, this conversion is only 40%
efficient, with the remainder lost as heat.
• The direct conversion of chemical to
electrical energy is expected to be more
efficient and is the basis for fuel cells.

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 Hydrogen Fuel Cells
• In this cell, hydrogen
and oxygen form water.
• The cells are twice as
efficient as combustion.
• The cells use hydrogen gas
as the fuel and oxygen from
the air.
• Fuel cells are NOT batteries;
the source of energy must be
continuously provided.

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 Corrosion of Iron
• Corrosion is oxidation.
• Its common name is rusting.

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 Preventing Corrosion of Iron
• Corrosion can be prevented by coating iron with a metal
that is more readily oxidized.
• Cathodic protection occurs when zinc is more easily
oxidized, so it is sacrificed to keep the iron from rusting.

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 Preventing Corrosion of Iron
• A sacrificial anode is attached to an underground pipe. The
anode is oxidized before the pipe.

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 Electrolysis
• Nonspontaneous reactions can occur in electrochemistry
IF outside electricity is used to drive the reaction.
• Use of electrical energy to create chemical reactions is
called electrolysis.

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 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
• 1 coulomb = 1 ampere × 1 second
• Q = It = nF
• Q = charge (C)
• I = current (A)
• t = time (s)
• n = moles of electrons that
travel through the wire in
the given time
• F = Faraday’s constant
NOTE: n is different than that
for the Nernst equation!

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 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
Calculate the number of grams of aluminum produced in 1.00 h by
the electrolysis of molten AlCl3 if the electrical current is 10.0 A.
Time = 3600s
Current = 10.0A
MW Al = 27.0 g/mol
[ 10.0 𝐴
❑ ][ 3600 𝑠
1 h𝑟 ] 4
=3.6 𝑥 10 𝐶

Charge = ?
Coulomb = Amp*sec

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 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
Calculate the number of grams of aluminum produced in 1.00 h by
the electrolysis of molten AlCl3 if the electrical current is 10.0 A.
Time = 3600s

[ ][ ]
4 −
Current = 10.0A 3.6 𝑥 10 𝐶   1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒
= 0.373 𝑚𝑜𝑙
MW Al = 27.0 g/mol ❑ 96,485 𝐶
Charge = 3.6x104 C
Moles of e- = ?

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 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
Calculate the number of grams of aluminum produced in 1.00 h by
the electrolysis of molten AlCl3 if the electrical current is 10.0 A.
Time = 3600s
Current = 10.0A
MW Al = 27.0 g/mol
[
0.373 𝑚𝑜𝑙
❑ ][ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑙
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒
− ]
=0.124 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Charge = 3.6x104 C
Moles of e- = 0.373 moles
Moles of Al = ?

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 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
Calculate the number of grams of aluminum produced in 1.00 h by
the electrolysis of molten AlCl3 if the electrical current is 10.0 A.
Time = 3600s
Current = 10.0A
MW Al = 27.0 g/mol
Charge = 3.6x104 C
Moles of e- = 0.373 moles
Moles of Al = 0.124 moles Al
Grams of Al = ?

[ ][
0.124 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐴𝑙 27.0 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
❑ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑙]=𝟑 . 𝟑𝟔 𝒈 𝑨𝒍

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
The half-reaction for formation of magnesium metal upon electrolysis of
molten MgCl2 is:
Mg2+ + 2 e– → Mg
Calculate the mass of magnesium formed upon passage of a current of
60.0 A for a period of 4.00 × 103 s.
( 60.0 𝐴 ) ( 4.00 𝑥 103 𝑠 ) =2.4 𝑥 10 5 𝐶
Time = 4.00x103s
Current = 60.0A
[ ][ ]
5 −
MW Mg = 24.305 g/mol 2.4 𝑥 10 𝐶   1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 −
= 2.487 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑒
❑ 96,485 𝐶
Coulomb = Amp*sec

[ ][ ][ ]
−
2.487 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑒 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑔 24.305 𝑔 𝑀𝑔
=𝟑𝟎 .𝟐 𝒈 𝑴𝒈
❑ 2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 − 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑔

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.