Course : Artificial Intelligence

Effective Period : July 2020

Logical Agents

Session 05

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 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this session, students will be able to:
• LO 3: Explain various intelligent search algorithms to solve
the problems
• LO 4: Explain how to use knowledge representation in
reasoning purpose

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 Outline
1. Knowledge-Based Agents
2. The Wumpus World
3. Logic
4. Propositional Logic

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 Knowledge-Based Agents
• The central component of knowledge-based agent is
knowledge base (KB)
• Knowledge base is set of “sentences”

• Each “sentence” expressed in a language called a knowledge

representation language and represent about the world
• Axiom: sentence is taken as given without being derived
from other sentences
• TELL and ASK: standard name for add new sentences to the
KB and a way to query what is known
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 Knowledge-Based Agents
• TELL and ASK may involve inference
• Inference: deriving new sentence from old sentences
– Obey the requirement when one ASK a question of KB
– Answer should follow from what has been told
(TELLED) to the KB previously

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 Knowledge-Based Agents
• Knowledge-based agent takes a percept as input and return
an action
• 3 steps when an agent program is called:

1. TELLs the knowledge base what is perceives

2. ASKs the knowledge base what action it should perform

3. TELLs the knowledge base which action was chosen and

the agent executes the action
• Agents can be viewed at the knowledge level

i.e., what they know, regardless of how it implemented

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 Knowledge-Based Agents
• A simple knowledge-based agent

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 Knowledge-Based Agents
• The agent must be able to:
– Represent states, actions, etc.
– Incorporate new percepts
– Update internal representations of the world
– Deduce hidden properties of the world
– Deduce appropriate actions

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 Knowledge-Based Agents
Building a Knowledge-Based Agent
• Declarative approach:
– TELLing it what it need to know, starting with an empty
knowledge base then the agent designer can TELL
sentences one by one until agent knows how to operate
in its environment
• Procedural approach:

– Encodes desired behaviors directly as program code

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 Knowledge-Based Agents
• A successful agent often combines both declarative and
procedural elements in its design
• The declarative knowledge can often be compiled into
more efficient procedural code

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The Wumpus World

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 The Wumpus World
• Performance measure
– gold +1000, death -1000

– -1 per step, -10 for using the arrow

• Environment
– A 4 x 4 grid rooms

– Agent always starts in [1,1] facing to the right

– The location of gold Wumpus are chosen
randomly
• Uniform distribution

– Each square can be a pit with a probability 0.2

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 The Wumpus World
• Actuators:
– Turn Left by 90˚, Turn Right by 90˚, Forward, Grab, Climb,
Shoot

• Sensors: (Perceive it)

– Stench: when the agent in the adjacent squares of Wumpus

– Breeze: when the agent in the adjacent squares of Pit

– Glitter: when the agent in the square of Gold

– Bump: When the agent walks into a wall

– Scream: When the Wumpus is killed

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 The Wumpus World
• A = Agent
• B = Breeze
• G = Glitter, Gold
• OK = Safe square
• P = Pit
• S = Stench
• V = Visited
• W = Wumpus

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 The Wumpus World
• A = Agent
• B = Breeze
• G = Glitter, Gold
• OK = Safe square
• P = Pit
• S = Stench
• V = Visited
• W = Wumpus

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 The Wumpus World
• A = Agent
• B = Breeze
• G = Glitter, Gold
• OK = Safe square
• P = Pit
• S = Stench
• V = Visited
• W = Wumpus

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 The Wumpus World
• A = Agent
• B = Breeze
• G = Glitter, Gold
• OK = Safe square
• P = Pit
• S = Stench
• V = Visited
• W = Wumpus

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 Logic
• In standard logics, every sentence must be either true or
false in each possible world—there is no “in between.”
• Logics

– formal languages for representing information such that

conclusions can be drawn
• Syntax

– defines the sentences in the language

• Semantics

– define the "meaning" of sentences

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 Logic
Example of KRL: the language in arithmetic
• Syntax:
– x + y = 4 is a valid sentence;
– x4y+=is not a valid sentence
• Semantics:
– x + y = 4 is true in a world where x is 2 and y is 2
– x + y = 4 is false in a world where x is 1 and y is 1

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 Logic
• Possible world = model
– Informally, we may think of a possible world as, for example,
having x men and y women sitting at a table playing bridge, and
the sentence x + y = 4 is true when
• There are four people in total
– Formally, the possible models are just all possible
assignments of real numbers to the variables are x and y
• If a sentence A is true in model m, we say that m satisfies A or
sometimes m is a model of A
• We use the notation of M(A) to mean the set of all models of A
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 Logic
• Entailment means that one thing follows from
another (a fact can be drawn from (collection) other
fact
• KB ╞ α : Knowledge base KB entails sentence α if and
only if α is true in all worlds where KB is true
• KB ╞ α iff M(KB)  M(α)

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 Logic
• Example:
– KB containing sentences “the Giants won” and “the
Reds won” entails “Either the Giants won or the
Reds won”
– x+y = 4 entails 4 = x+y
• Entailment is a relationship between sentences
(syntax) that is based on semantics

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 Logic
• Entailment in Wumpus World

– After [1, 1] OK, [2,1] Breeze:

– Entrapment model in [1, 2], [2, 2], [3, 1]: 3 choices of

Boolean  8 possible models

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 Logic
• Entailment in Wumpus World

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 Logic
• Entailment in Wumpus World

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 Logic
• Entailment in Wumpus World

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 Logic
• Entailment in Wumpus World

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 Logic
• Entailment in Wumpus World

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 Inference in Logic
• KB ├i α = sentence α can be derived from KB by procedure i

– Consequences of KB are a haystack; α is a needle.

– Entailment = needle in haystack; inference = finding it

• Soundness: i is sound if whenever KB ├i α, it is also true that

KB╞ α
• Completeness: i is complete if whenever KB╞ α, it is also
true that KB ├i α

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 Propositional Logic
• Propositional logic is the simplest logic

• The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable

sentences
• The atomic sentences consists of a single proposition
symbol
• Complex sentences are constructed from simpler
sentences, using parentheses and logical connectives

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 Propositional Logic
• There are five connectives in common use
–  (not). If S is a sentence, S is a sentence (negation)
–  (and). If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence
(conjunction)

–  (or). If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence

(disjunction)

–  (implies). If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a sentence

(implication)

–  (if and only if). If S1 and S2 are sentences, S1  S2 is a

sentence (biconditional) 31
 Propositional Logic
• The semantic defines the rules for determining the truth of a
sentence with respect to a particular model
• In propositional logic, a model simply fixes the truth value for
every proposition symbol, I.e. P1,2 = true

• For complex sentences, there are five rules for any sub
sentences in any model m :
S1 true iff S1 false
S1  S2 true iff S1 true and S2 true
S1  S2 true iff S1 true or S2 true
S1  S2 true S1 true and S2 false
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 Propositional Logic
• The rules can also be expressed with truth tables that
specify the truth value of a complex sentence for each
possible assignment of truth values to its components.

• Simple recursive process evaluates an arbitrary sentence,

e.g., P1,2  (P2,2  P3,1) = true  (true  false) = true  true = true

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 Wumpus World Sentences
• Let Pi,j be true if there is a pit in [i, j].

• Let Bi,j be true if there is a breeze in [i, j].

– P1,1

– B1,1

– B2,1

• “Pits cause breezes in adjacent squares”

– B1,1  (P1,2  P2,1 )

– B2,1  (P1,1  P2,2  P3,1 )

• “A square is breezy if and only if there is an adjacent pit”

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Wumpus World Sentences

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 References
• Stuart Russell, Peter Norvig. 2010. Artificial Intelligence :
A Modern Approach. Pearson Education. New Jersey.
ISBN:9780132071482

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