DATA COLLECTION
TYPES OF DATA
PRIMARY SECONDARY
PRIMARY DATA
Primary data are generally information gathered or generated by the researcher for the purpose of the project immediately at hand. Data originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the research problem.
ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
FIRST-HAND ACCOUNT RELIABLE LOGICAL STARTING POINT PERSONALISED APPROACH
DISAVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
EXPENSIVE BIASED DIFFICULT TO FORM A SAMPLE REPRESENTATIVE NON-COOPERATION
Secondary data
Data collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand Data previously collected by someone else Possibly for some other purpose
e.g., data in books, journals, newspapers, magazines, etc.
Advantages of secondary data
Easily accessible Relatively inexpensive Quickly obtained Helps identify the problem, better define the problem, develop an approach to the problem
disadvantages of secondary data
Their usefulness to the current problem may be limited in several important ways, including relevance, accuracy, current, dependable
A comparison of primary and secondary data
Primary data Collection purpose Collection process Collection cost Collection time secondary data
For the problem at For other problem hand Very involved high long Rapid and easy Relatively low short
Primary data
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
descriptive
casual
Experimental data Survey data Observational & other data
Qualitative Vs quantitative research
Qualitative research Objective To gain qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations Small number of nonrepresentative cases Unstructured Nonstatistical Develop an initial understanding Quantitative research To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest Large number of representative cases Structured Statistical Recommend a final course of action
Sample Data collection Data analysis Outcome
Primary data collection methods (qualitative)
Qualitative research procedures
Direct (nondisguised)
direct (disguised)
Focus groups
Projective techniques Depth interviews
Association techniques
Completion techniques
Construction techniques
Expressive techniques
RATIONALE FOR USING QUALITATIVE METHODS
Ideal explanatory tool Increase the value of subsequent quantitative research Obtain visceral feedback instead of just number crunching data Group dynamic enhance results Customers are people, not just charts.
Direct approach -in which the purpose of the project are disclosed to the respondent or are obvious, given the nature of the interview. Indirect approach -in which the purpose of the project are disguised from the respondents.
Focus Group
An interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents in an unstructured and natural manner The people who are interested in your discussion topic are identified and subsequently called for seminar/meeting EXAMPLE Increase in the taxes on a particular group say transporters Ban of tobacco in a state New government policy against the small scale industry
Characteristics of focus groups
Group size: 8 to 12 Group composition: homogeneous, respondents prescreened Physical setting: relaxed, informal atmosphere Time duration: 1 to 3 hrs Recording: use of audiocassettes and videotapes Moderator: observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of the moderator.
Advantages of focus groups
Synergism: group of people will give wider range of info. Snowballing: here one person comments triggers a chain reaction from other respondents Stimulation: as the time period is short respondents are eager to put their views Security: are participants feelings are similar, they feel comfortable in putting their views Spontaneity: no specific questions therefore the responses are spontaneous and accurate ideas of their views Serendipity: ideas are more likely to arise out of the blue in a group than in an individual interview speed
Disadvantages of focus groups
Misuse: focus groups can be misused and abused by considering the results as conclusive rather than exploratory Misjudge: biases Moderation: focus groups are difficult to moderate. Moderators with all desirable skills are rare. the quality of the results depends heavily on the skills of the moderator. Messy: as unstructured so coding, analysis, and interpretation becomes difficult. Misrepresentation: focus groups are not representative of the general population. So decision making can be under ?
Depth interviews
An unstructured, direct personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a topic.
ADVANTAGES OF DEPTH INTERVIEWS
Independent responses Attitudes and emotions can be explored in detail Possible to determine motivation Mutual interaction between the interviewer and interviewee.
DISADVANTAGES OF DEPTH INTERVIEWS
Difficult and expensive Lack of structure in questionnaire Quality depends on interviewer skills Cost and length
Projective Techniques
An unstructured and indirect form of questioning encourages the respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern.
1. Association technique- here the respondent is presented with a stimulus and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to the mind. Word-association test : the respondent is presented with a list of words, one at a time. After each word they are asked to give the first word that comes to mind. e.g. fresh, pure, bubbles etc. Cloud pictures Auditory project techniques
2. Completion technique- requires the respondent to
complete an incomplete stimulus situation, image or
situation and asked to complete it however he or she chooses
Sentence-completion test- respondents are presented with a number of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. e.g. a person who shops at marks and spencer is. maggi is mostly liked by when I think of shopping in a department store , i.. Story completion test- e.g. horlicks add in which yuvraj asked the viewers, how to get rid of her mom scolding. Cadbury add of amitabh bacchan.
3. construction technique- the respondent is required to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue, or description.
Picture response technique: the respondent is shown a picture and asked to tell a story describing it. Cartoon tests: cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate the dialogue that one cartoon character might make in response to the comments of another character.
4. expressive techniques- the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
Role playing: respondents are asked to assume the behaviour of other people. The researcher assumes that the respondents will project their own feelings into the role. Third-person technique: the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person to the situation. This third person may be a friend, neighbour, collegue etc.
Advantages of projective techniques
Elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give it if they know the purpose of the study. At times direct questioning can be misunderstand, or misinterpret or mislead the researcher. Are also helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating att a subconcious level.
disadvantages of projective techniques
Require personal interviews with highly trained interviewers. Skilled interviewers are required to analyze the responses. So they tend to be expensive. Serious risk of interpretation bias. with the exception of word association, all techniques have open ended questions, making analysis and interpretation difficult and subjective
Focus groups, depth interviews, and projective techniques
Focus groups Degree of structure Probing of individual respondents Moderator bias Interpretation bias Uncovering subconscious information Relatively high Low depth interviews Relatively medium High projective techniques Relatively low Medium
Relatively medium Relatively low Low
Relatively high Relatively medium Medium to high
Low to high Relatively high High
No Involve unusual behaviour/question ing Obtaining sensitive information Overall usefulness Low
To a limited extent
Yes
Medium
High
Highly useful
Useful
Somewhat useful
1. Surveys (quantitative)
Survey is a process for gathering information, without detailed verification, on the activity being examined. A structured questionnaire given to a sample of a population and designed to elicit specific info from respondents.The main purposes are to: Understand the activity under review Identify significant areas wanting special emphasis Obtain information for use in performing the audit Fact- Finding study
Characteristic of Survey
It is always a field study It seeks responses directly from respondents It can cover a very large population A survey may involve Extensive study or intensive study It covers a definite geographical area Every member of population has equal chance of being selected Conducted in a natural setting
Purpose of Survey
Provide information Causal relationship between variables Comparisons of demographic groups Dealing with cause and effect relationship
Survey methods
Survey methods
Telephone interviewing
personal interviewing
mail interviewing
electronic interviewing
Traditional
Computer assisted
mail
Mail panel
In -home
Mall intercept
Computer Assisted e.g. kiosks
E-mail
internet
Mail panel - a large and nationally representative sample of households who have agreed to periodically participate in mail questionnaires, product tests, and telephone surveys.
Personal interview
One to One interview is been taken In- depth information being collected Interview can be audio or video recorded EXAMPLE Interview of politicians for the forecast of the election polls Interview of Industry personal for the new change in the government laws for imports Knowing the famous TV channel among teenagers Which is most used products ex: perfumes, shoes, cosmetics and why?
Telephone interview
Quickest way of collecting data Telephonic interview can be recorded for evidence Some time not reliable Government restrictions EXAMPLE Asking customers of HUTCH are they happy with the billing pattern of their company Grievances if any after the use of any washing machine, Grinder, television
ADVANTAGES OF TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW
SPEED DATA COLLECTION HIGH QUALITY DATA COLLECTION THROUGH IMPROVED TECHNIQUES INCREASED CO-OPERATION ABILITY TO INTERVIEW RESPONDENTS IN HIGH-CRIME AREAS FACILITATATION OF COLLECTION OF SOCIALLY UNDESIRABLE RESPONSES MAKING CALL BACK EASIER
DISADVANTAGES OF TELEPHONIC INTERVIEWS
INABILITY TO ASSESS RESPONDENTS LENGTH OF INETRVIEW IS LESS AND IT IS EASY FOR A RELUCTANT RESPONDENT TO HANG UP DOUBT ON QUALITY OF DATA IF SENSITIVE INFORMATION IS INVOLVED. TENDENCY OF PEOPLE TO GIVE SHORTER REPLIES RESULTS IN INACCURATE INFORMATION. INCREASED NON-RESPONSE RATES DUE TO SCREENING DEVICE
Self administered (mail or internet) survey
In this type of collection of data mails are send across users of a free mail service who are not registered to a particular group EXAMPLE Polls on who will the next CM of Tamil nadu Which is favorite breakfast Top ramen noodles or Maggie noodles
ADVANTAGES OF SELF ADMINSTARTED INTERVIEWS
ELIMINATES INTERVIEWER BIAS HONEST REPLIES METHODS LIKE MULTI-MEDIA TOUCH SCREEN COMPUTERS
LESS EXPENSIVE
ADVANTAGES OF MAIL SURVEY
COST-EFFECTIVE BETTER CONTROL RESPONDENTS REPLY AT THEIR CONVENIENCE
DISADVANTAGE
NON-RESPONSE RATE
2. Observation methods
The recording of behavioural patterns of people, objects, and events in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest.
Structured and unstructured observation: Structured observation - technique where the researcher clearly defines the behaviours to be observed and the methods by which they will be measured. Most appropriate for conclusive research Unstructured observation - involves a researcher monitoring all relevant phenomena without specifying the details in advance. Most appropriate for exploratory research
Disguised and undisguised observation:
Disguised observation- here the respondents are unaware that they are being observed. This allows respondents to behave naturally, since people tend to behave naturally when they know that they are being observed. by one way mirror, hidden cameras Undisguised observation- the respondents are aware that they are under observation. they may be aware of the presence of the observer Natural observation- observing behaviour as it takes place in the environment. E.g. observing behaviour of respondent in a retail store while purchasing. Contrived observation- the behaviour is observed in an artificial environment. E.g. test kitchen set up in a shopping mall.
Natural and contrived observation:
Personal observation: in which a human observer records the phenomenon being observed as it occurs. e.g. observer counting the number of people entering the shopperss stop, i.e. observe traffic flow in a retail outlet Mechanical observation: mechanical devices rather than human observers record the phenomenon being observed. E.g. audimeter is attached to a television set to continiously record what channel the set is tuned to. People meters are also set to which not only tells which channel is being watched but also who is watching it. On-site cameras used by retailers to assess package designs, counter space, floor displays, and traffic flow patterns. Turnstiles which record number of people entering or leaving a building, office etc. Traffic counters placed across streets to determine the number of vehicles passing certain location.
Audit: the researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis. In audits data is collected personally by the researcher and the data is based upon the counts, usually of physical objects Content analysis: the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication. E.g. the frequency of appearance of blacks, women , and members of other minority groups in mass media. Go through the news or newspapers etc. Examining the portrayal of women in U.S. magazine advertising has changed, positively or negatively, over the 10 year period from 1998 to 2008.we will collect sample of magazines.
Trace analysis: an approach in which data collection is based upon physical traces, or evidence, or past behaviour.
E.g. the position of radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations. Advertisers can used the estimates which radio station to advertise on. The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers
Other methods: mystery shopping
ERROR IN SURVEY RESEARCH
RANDOM SAMPLING ERROR SYSTEMATIC ERROR
ERRORS
TYPES OF ERROR IN SURVEY RESEARCH
RANDOM SAMPLING SYSTEMATIC ERROR
ADMINISTRATIVE ERROR
RESPONDENT ERROR
RESPONSE BIAS NON RESPONSE ERROR
SAMPLE SELECTION ERROR
DELIBERATE FALSIFICATION SAMPLE FRAM ERROR POPULATION SPECIFICATION ERROR DATA PROCESSING ERROR INTERVIEWER BIAS INTERVIEWER ERROR ACQUIESCENCE BIAS UNCONSCIOUS MISREPRESENTATION
EXTREMITY BIAS
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS
RANDOM SAMPLING ERROR
Random sampling error is the error caused by a particular sample not being representative of the population of the interest due to random variation Error cannot be avoided Brought to Acceptable limit by increasing sample size
SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Error that occur due to nature of the research design and the precision of execution are known as systematic error. Wrong technique Wrongly calibrated instruments Many sources of systematic error some are
Administrative errors Respondent error
Administrative errors
Sample design error Occured by Carelessness, confusion, negligence, omission etc. Types of Administrative error
Sample Selection error Sample frame error Population Specification error Data processing error Interviewer error
Sample Selection error
Execution of a sampling procedure resulting in an unrepresentative sample Occur by Non adherence to appropriate sampling procedures Use of Incomplete and improper sampling procedure Example
Mall intercept interviewers Political leader
Sample frame error
Sampling frame is defined as list of population elements or members from which units to be sampled are selected Error occur when List of members does not correspond exactly with the target population Example
Target population all supermarkets in Hyderabad Sample frame does not list all the supermarkets
Population specification error
Incorrect definition of the population Example
Small electronic owner looking sample from only small car owners
Data Processing error
Occurred by Incorrect data entry Incorrect computer programming Avoided by Careful verification of each step
Interviewer error
Occur due to Interaction of the interviewer with the respondent Reasons Differ in the character and abilities Unable to record answer correctly Way of understanding of the interviewer Not trained Interviewer Cheating by filling forms Cross checking Verified by calling some of the respondents
Respondent error
A survey requires co-operation in giving answers that contain correct information Respondent error classified into Non response error Response bias
Non-Response error
Inclusion of the sample that failed to response is non-response error Occur due to Person not available during preliminary call & Subsequent call Caller Id & Answering machine Busy with other work Concealing privacy and sensitive issue Respondent not involved in the survey Example: Airlines bad experience
Response Bias
A survey error that results from the inclination of people to answer a question falsely, either through deliberate misrepresentation is called Response Bias Response Bias has two basic form 1)Deliberate Falsification 2)Unconscious Misrepresentation
Deliberate Falsification
Knowingly giving wrong answers when respondent are not certain about the facts Reasons for Deliberate Falsification
Appear intelligent Conceal information Time pressure Courtesy bias EXAMPLE: How many time he visited a supermarket, cinema hall. Conceal true information towards efficiency of their units. He is afraid from the supervisor
Unconscious Misrepresentation
It is a situation where respondent gives wrong or estimated information dues to forgetfulness and ignorance even though he has no intension of doing it. Example
Misunderstand question Prior inexperience Prestige issue Unexpected question
Different type of biases
Acquiescence Bias Respondent inclination to be same/opposite to the interviewer so answers are Yes or No Extremity Bias Respondent either use extreme or neutral answers Interviewer Bias Interviewer facial expression, age, gender, tone, etc Social Desirability Bias Answers to be socially desirable or acceptable to create favorable image. Example
Education information overstated Salary overstated
INTERVIEW
WHAT IS AN INTERVIEW? AN INTERVIEW IS A PURPOSEFUL DISCUSSION BETWEEN TWO PEOPLE OR MORE. HELPS IN GATHERING VALID AND RELIABLE DATA. BY WAY OF FORMULATING QUESTIONS IN QUESTIONNAIRE. KEEPING IN MIND REASERCHERS QUESTION AND OBJECTIVES.
CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERVIEW
CONSISTS OF FOUR ENTITIES RESEARCHER INTERVIEWER INTERVIEWEE INTERVIEW ENVIRONMENT
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
STRUCTURED SEMI-STRUCTURED UNSTRUCTURED STANDARDIZED NON-STANDARDIZED RESPONDENT INFORMANT
INTERVIEW METHOD
NON-DIRECTIVE DIRECTIVE FOCUSED IN-DEPTH
COMMON METHODS IN INTERVIEW
PERSONAL INTERVIEW TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW SELF-ADMINISTERED INTERVIEW MAIL SURVEY
Personal interview
One to One interview is been taken In- depth information being collected Interview can be audio or video recorded EXAMPLE Interview of politicians for the forecast of the election polls Interview of Industry personal for the new change in the government laws for imports Knowing the famous TV channel among teenagers Which is most used products ex: perfumes, shoes, cosmetics and why?
Telephone interview
Quickest way of collecting data Telephonic interview can be recorded for evidence Some time not reliable Government restrictions EXAMPLE Asking customers of HUTCH are they happy with the billing pattern of their company Grievances if any after the use of any washing machine, Grinder, television
CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONAL INTERVIEW
DOOR TO DOOR INTERVIEW EXECUTIVE INTERVIEW MALL INTERCEPT SURVEY
DOOR TO DOOR INTERVIEW
ASSUME TO BE THE BEST INTERVIEW AT HOME FACE TO FACE INTERACTION ADVANTAGE OF INSTANT FEEDBACK EXPLANATION OF COMPLEX TASK EASY HANDLING OF COMPLEX PRODUCT CONCEPT
EXECUTIVE INTERVIEW
SPECIFIC TO WORK PLACE RESPONDENTS INTERVIEWING BUSINESS PEOPLE RELATED TO INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT SIMILAR TO DOOR TO DOOR
SELF ADMINISTERED INTERVIEW
ABSENSE OF INTERVIEWER FILLING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE PLACES LIKE:SHOPPING MALL,MARKETS,AIRPORTS,RAILWAY STATIONS QUANTITY OF INFORMATION GENERATION IS LIMITED USE OF KIOSKS ADOPTED NOWADAYS
MAIL SURVEY
SURVEY TO QUALIFIED RESPONDENTS BY WAY OF MAILING THEM THE QUESTIONNAIRE TYPES: AD-HOC:NO PRIOR CONTACT BEFORE MAILING MAIL PANEL:SET OF QUESTIONNAIRE SENT FROM TIME TO TIME TO RESPONDENTS
ADVANTAGES OF DOOR-TODOOR INTERVIEW
INSTANT FEEDBACK IMPROVED QUALITY CLARITY COMFORT AND RELAXED ENVIRONMENT REPRESENTATIVE POPULATION REDUCED NON-RESPONSE ERROR
DISADVANTAGES OF DOORTO-DOOR INTERVIEW
LOW POTENTIAL RESPONDENTS UNSAFE AREAS DISTANCE DEARTH OF QUALITY INTERVIEW UNEXPECTED HINDERANCE ACCESSIBILITY
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXECUTIVE INTERVIEW
SIMILAR TO DOOR-TO-DOOR INTERVIEW LONG WAITING TIME
QUESTIONNAIRE
IT
IS THE LIST OF QUESTIONS
IT
IS THE HEART OF ANY SURVEY USED FOR DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPLANARATORY STUDIES
IT
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRS
QUESTIONNAIRS
STRUCTURED
UNSTRUCTURED
PICTORIAL
CLOSED FORM
OPEN END
QUESTION CONTENTS
What is the utility of data collected? How effective a question in producing the required data? Can the respondent answer the question accurately? What is the chance the respondents being influenced by external forces?
DESIGN OF QUESTIONNAIRS
THE DESIGN IS TREATED AS THE HEART OF THE SURVEY OPERATION QUESTUONNAIRS SHOULD BE RELIABLE AD VALID THE DESIG CA BE DONE IN THREE WAYS
CHOICEOF QUESTIONNAIR DESIGING THE INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS COSTRUCTIO OF QUESTIONNAIRS
INFLUENCING FACTORS
The characteristics of the respondents The answers not being distorted The size of the sample The types of questions The number of questions Time and money Availability of interviewer
DESIGING OF INDIVIDUAL QUESTONS
Adopt the questions used in the other questionnaires Adapt questions used in other questionnaire Develop their own questions
CLOSED QUESTIONS
LIST
CATAGORY
RANKING
MULTIPLE QUESTION
CONSTRUCTION OF A QESTONNAIRE
Defining the research problem Target respondents Give a clear perception to the respondents Should be practicable ad realistic Should be simple and should have less jargons Should be concerned with a single idea Should follow the FUNNEL METHOD Necessary items should be incorporated
QUESTIONNAIRE SEQUENCE
Lead in question Qualifying question Warm up questions Specific question Demographic question
PRETESTING REVSION FINAL DRAFTING
PURPOSE OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
THE COVERING LETTER : 1. Explains the of survey 2. Its the first part of questionnaire 3. Most of the people ignore it INTRODUCING THE QUESTIONNAIRE : At the start of the questionnaire one needs to explain the purpose of the survey PILOT TESTING : 1. Helps to obtain some assessment of the questions validity, reliability of the data collected. 2. Helps to ensure that the data collected enables to answer the questions
Administering The Questionnaire
After the questionnaire is designed ,pilot-tested and amended and samples is selected , it can be used to collect data. This final stage is called ADMINISTERING THE QUESTONNAIRE.
Advantages of Questionnaire
The major advantages are: Low cost Relative flexibility Applicability to fairly large sample size Questions are in consistent form and style and there is little scope for biasness A respondent can look through the whole questionnaire before committing themselves One can avoid the problem of defensive answering by the respondent
Disadvantages of Questionnaire
The respond rate is very low The method is not suitable for information on sensitive topics like sexual behavior, abnormal activity It cannot elicit replies from people who are illiterate It is inappropriate when the objective of the survey involves a good deal of explaining The answers cannot be checked and accepted as final Not suitable where spontaneous answers are needed The researcher cannot be sure whether the question is filled by the person who is supposed to do it
Secondary Data Sources
Overall Suitability Precise Suitability Costs and Benefits
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY DATA
CLASSIFICATION BY SOURCE
INTERNAL:
available with in organization. departmental reports, production summaries, sales and marketing, financial and accounting reports.
EXTERNAL:
outside the company. books and periodicals, government sources, computer retrievable databases, media sources.
CLASSIFICATION BY CATEGORY
Books and Periodicals Government publications Non governmental associations Directories Industry experts Special collections
CLASSIFICATION BY MEDIUM
Hard
copy
Books, magazines, journals, special collection
Internet
Microsoft internet explorer, Netscape Navigator
CLASSIFICATION BY DATABASE
Collection of information in a detailed and standard format.
Online database : central data bank Offline database : diskettes, CD-ROMS Internet
Further classified as
Reference databases Source databases
SECONDARY DATA
ADVANTAGES:
Identify, clarify and redefine the research problem Alternate methods that can be used for primary research Generates information for better creativity Lack of availability Lack of relevance Inaccurate data
DISADAVANTAGES:
Syndicated Data
Data is produced by a market research firm Not client-specific Organized into a common format for a fee to its subscribers
Syndicated Data
Syndicated Data
Surveys Periodic Panel
Audits
Surveys
Commercial surveys undertaken by research organizations
Periodic Panel Survey Shared Surveys
Audits
In-depth analysis of the existing situation in a firm
Performance Stores Product Retail Pantry
Uses of Audits
Assessing brand shares and competitive activity Identifying inventory problems Developing sales potential and forecasting Determining total market size Monitoring promotional budget based on sales volume
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