02 Lecture Presentation

CHAPTER
2
ELEMENTS OF
Ecology
Climate
Ninth Edition
Thomas M. Smith
Robert Leo Smith
Lecture Presentation by
Carla Ann Hass
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Penn State University
Chapter 2 Climate
 What is the difference between climate and

weather?

Chapter 2 Climate
 Weather occurs at a specific place/time

 It is the combination of:
 temperature
 humidity
 precipitation
 wind
 cloudiness
 any other atmospheric conditions

Chapter 2 Climate
 Climate is the long-term average pattern of weather

 Local, regional, global

Which of these would be found as a long-term weather
pattern in a hot desert climate, such as the Sahara
Desert in Africa?
A. high humidity
B. many large clouds
C. low temperatures
D. low rainfall
E. all of these would be found in a hot desert

Which of these would be found as a long-term weather
pattern in a hot desert climate, such as the Sahara
Desert in Africa?
A. high humidity
B. many large clouds
C. low temperatures
D. low rainfall
E. all of these would be found in a hot desert

Section 2.1 Surface Temperatures Reflect the
Difference between Incoming and Outgoing Radiation
 What is solar radiation?

 What wavelengths are included in solar radiation?

 Solar radiation is electromagnetic energy

 Shorter wavelength  higher energy

Figure 2.1
0
0
0
0
40
45
50
57
59
61
70
Solar radiation Thermal radiation
Ultraviolet Visible Near infrared Far infrared
100 280 500 1000 5000 10,000 100,000

Wavelength (nm)

 The hotter an object, the shorter the wavelengths of

energy it emits

Figure 2.2
Sun
(5800C)
Earth
(15C)
120
Intensity of radiation wavelength
(millions of joules/m2/s)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Wavelength of radiation (mm)
 What happens to solar radiation when it reaches the

Earth?

 Some energy that reaches Earth is reflected back

into space
 What determines how much is reflected?
 Think about light striking snow. How much is
reflected versus absorbed?


 Albedo describes the reflectivity of a surface.
 Snow has a high albedo (0.8–0.9).


 Albedo describes the reflectivity of a surface.
 Snow has a high albedo (0.8–0.9)
 What about surfaces that are covered with
vegetation, like a forest? Do they have higher or
lower albedo?

 What happens to solar radiation when it reaches

Earth?

 Some energy that reaches Earth is absorbed by the

surface.
 In turn, this can be emitted back into space.
 Terrestrial longwave radiation

Figure 2.2
Sun
(5800C)
Earth
(15C)
120
Intensity of radiation wavelength
(millions of joules/m2/s)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Wavelength of radiation (mm)
 What happens to the energy emitted from Earth’s

surface?

 What happens to the energy emitted from Earth’s

surface?
 Some goes back into space
 Most is absorbed by gasses in the atmosphere
 carbon dioxide
 water vapor
 methane
 What term is used the describe these gases?

 Greenhouses gases absorb longwave radiation

 Help to keep the surface of the Earth warm (the
greenhouse effect)

Figure 2.3
Outgoing
longwave
radiation
Incoming Reflected
shortwave shortwave
radiation radiation
Greenhouse gases
Emitted
Downward
longwave
longwave
radiation
radiation
Net radiation
Net radiation = (Incoming SW - Reflected SW)

- (Emitted LW - Downward LW)

 Net radiation  incoming solar (shortwave) radiation

minus outgoing terrestrial (longwave) radiation
 determines the surface temperature
 average net radiation of Earth  zero

Figure 2.3
Outgoing
longwave
radiation
Incoming Reflected
shortwave shortwave
radiation radiation
Greenhouse gases
Emitted
Downward
longwave
longwave
radiation
radiation
Net radiation
Net radiation = (Incoming SW - Reflected SW)

- (Emitted LW - Downward LW)

 Average annual surface net radiation varies across

the globe.
 Where is it highest? Lowest?
 What causes this variation?

Figure 2.4
Net Radiation (W/m2)
-280 0 280

 As you move away from the equator to higher

latitudes average annual surface net radiation
decreases because
 the angle is greater and the incoming solar radiation
is spread over a larger area
 the solar radiation must travel through more of the
atmosphere, so more is reflected

Figure 2.5
Atmosphere
Sun’s rays
Long
distance
Large
(a) area
Earth
Short Small
distance area
(b) Equator

 This leads to a distinct pattern of global

temperatures.

Figure 2.6
C
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

Section 2.2 Intercepted Solar Radiation and
Surface Temperatures Vary Seasonally
 What causes seasonal variation in temperature
during a year?
 Where are these seasonal differences most
pronounced?
 Why is it summer in the United States when it is
winter in Australia?

 It takes one year for the Earth to orbit once around
the sun.
 It takes one day for the Earth to rotate on its axis.
 The Earth’s axis has a tilt of 23.5

 When the Earth is directly facing the sun (its axis is
parallel)
 the sun is directly overhead at the equator
 all places on Earth have 12 hours of darkness and 12
hours of light
 these are the vernal (spring) and autumnal (fall)
equinoxes, or “equal nights”

Figure 2.7b
Solar radiation falls

directly on the equator
Sun’s
rays
(b) Vernal and autumnal
equinoxes

 When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the
sun
 the sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5 N)
 days are longer and temperatures are warmer – it is
summer in the United States
 the longest day is at the summer solstice (about June
22nd)

Figure 2.7a
Solar radiation falls

directly on the Tropic
of Cancer, with increased
input and day length
in the Northern Hemisphere
(a) Summer solstice

June 22
 When the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the
sun
 the sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn
(23.5 S)
 days are longer and temperatures are warmer – in
Australia – but the days are shorter with colder
temperatures in the United States (winter)
 the shortest day in the Northern Hemisphere is on the
winter solstice (about December 22nd)

Figure 2.7c
Solar radiation falls directly on

the Tropic of Capricorn, with
increased input and day length
in the Southern Hemisphere
(c)Winter solstice
December 22
 The regions at the equator show very little seasonal
variation in temperature.
 The regions at the North and South Pole show the
most seasonal variation in day length (zero to 24
hours) and solar radiation

Figure 2.8
90 N
600 90 N
60 N 60 N
Shortwave radiation (watts/m2)
500 30 N
0 30 N
400 0
September Equinox
December Solstice
March Equinox
June Solstice
300 30 S
200 60 S
90 S
100 180° 120 W 60 W 0 60 E 120 E 180
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Month Annual Temperature Range (C)
(a) (b)

If Earth were not tilted on its axis, the length of day
and night around the world would be the same as seen
in the Northern Hemisphere during the
A. autumnal equinox.
B. summer solstice.
C. vernal equinox.
D. winter solstice.
E. both A and C are correct

If Earth were not tilted on its axis, the length of day
and night around the world would be the same as seen
in the Northern Hemisphere during the
A. autumnal equinox.
B. summer solstice.
C. vernal equinox.
D. winter solstice.
E. both A and C are correct

Section 2.3 Geographic Differences in Surface Net Radiation
Result in Global Patterns of Atmospheric Circulation
 Review
 Average net radiation of Earth  0. What does this
mean?
 What pattern is seen if you look at different
geographic regions?

Figure 2.4
Net Radiation (W/m2)
-280 0 280

 Geographic differences
 Incoming  outgoing radiation
 from the equator to 35.5 N and S
 Outgoing  incoming radiation
 from 35.5 N and S to the poles

Figure 2.9
450
400
Incoming radiation Outgoing radiation
350 (Net shortwave radiation) (Net longwave radiation)
Shortwave radiation (watts/m2)
300 Surplus
250
Equator
200
150
Deficit Deficit
100 Net radiation
50
0
-50
-100
-150
85 65 4525 5 5 25 45 65 85
Latitude (Degrees)
Southern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere
 Imbalance results in global pattern of heat

redistribution from equator to poles
 mainly through convection
 What happens to air when it warms?
 What happens to air when it cools?

 Warm air at equator rises – leads to low pressure at

surface
 air flows from N and S to the equator
 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Figure 2.10
Air cools and eventually

descends to the surface, where
it moves toward the equator
60°
30°
0°
Equator
Warm surface air at
30° the equator rises and
moves north and south
60°

 Rising air and the equator moves N and S to the

poles and cools
 cool air sinks – leads to high pressure at surface
 Movement of air creates cells of circulation

Figure 2.10
Air cools and eventually

descends to the surface, where
it moves toward the equator
60°
30°
0°
Equator
Warm surface air at
30° the equator rises and
moves north and south
60°

 Earth is not stationary

 What is the direction of rotation on its axis?
 Is the speed of rotation constant or variable at
different locations?

 Speed of rotation is
 faster at the equator
 slower at the poles
 Think about physics… What happens to the
momentum of an object as the circumference
changes? How will it be deflected?

 In the Northern Hemisphere – larger to smaller

circumference – deflection is to the east
 In the Southern Hemisphere – smaller to larger
circumference – deflection is to the west
 This is the Coriolis Effect

Figure 2.11
N pole
60 N
Deflection
to right
30 N
No
Equator deflection
at equator
30 S
Deflection
to left
60 S
S pole Maximum
deflection at poles
 Compression also affects air movement

 Density of air increases as latitude increases
 Compression and deflection produce cells of air
circulation
 Start at the equator
 Review: What happens to warm air? What happens
to cool air?

 Equator – warm air rises, low pressure at surface

(equatorial low)
 result – warm air spreads north and south, cools as it
moves
 30 N and S – cool air sinks, high pressure at
surface
 result – cool air warms as it descends, spreads N and
S close to the surface
 This produces a Hadley Cell
 Deflected winds – NE and SW Trade winds

Figure 2.12
Polar cell
Polar easterlies Ferrel cell
Westerlies
Hadley cell
Northeast
trade winds
Equatorial
Southeast low
trade winds
Westerlies
Subtropical
Polar easterlies high


surface (subtropical high)
 result – cool air warms as it descends, spreads N and
S close to the surface
 60 N and S – warm air rises, low pressure at
surface
 result – warm air spreads N and S, cools as it moves
 This produces a Ferrel Cell
 Deflected winds – the Westerlies

 60 N and S – warm air rises, low pressure at

surface
 result – warm air spreads N and S, cools as it moves
surface
 result – cool air warms as it descends, spreads S
(North Pole) and N (South Pole) close to the surface
 This produces a Polar Cell
 Deflected winds - the Polar Easterlies

Section 2.4 Surface Winds and Earth’s
Rotation Create Ocean Currents
 Currents are patterns of water movement
 Global wind patterns affect these currents
 Ocean currents are modified by presence of land

Section 2.4 Surface Winds and Earth’s
Rotation Create Ocean Currents
 Gyres – dominate water movement in the oceans
 Northern Hemisphere – clockwise
 Southern Hemisphere – counterclockwise
 Also redistribute heat from tropics
 Trade winds push warm surface waters west
 water reaches continents and flows N and S
 water cools
 Westerlies push cooler water east
 water reaches continents and flows to equator

Figure 2.12
Polar cell
Polar easterlies Ferrel cell
Westerlies
Hadley cell
Northeast
trade winds
Equatorial
Southeast low
trade winds
Westerlies
Subtropical
Polar easterlies high

Section 2.5 Temperature Influences the
Moisture Content of Air
 What are the three states of water?
 What happens to energy as water moves from one
state to another?
 What does it mean when the air is saturated?

 Evaporation requires energy
 Condensation releases energy
 Water vapor in the air
 has weight
 exerts pressure
 Saturation vapor pressure (VP)  water vapor
capacity of air
 amount of pressure exerted by water vapor at
saturation
 if this is exceeded, condensation occurs

 How does saturation vapor pressure vary with
temperature?
 Hint: When do you see higher humidity, in the
summer or the winter?

 Relative humidity 
 (Current VP/Saturation VP)  100
 What if warm air cools but water vapor pressure
stays the same?

 What if warm air cools but water vapor pressure
stays the same?
 Saturation vapor pressure is reduced, so relative
humidity increases. If this reaches 100%, what
happens?
 What is the dew point temperature?

Figure 2.15
Current vapor pressure

Relative humidity =  100
Saturation vapor pressure
2kPa
Relative humidity =  100 = 62.5%
3.2 kPa
8
7 Saturation vapor Saturation
Vapor pressure (kPa)
pressure at current vapor pressure

6
air temperature
5 (3.2 kPa) Dew point
temperature
4
(18C)
3
Current air
2
Current vapor pressure temperature
1 (2 kPa) (25C)
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Temperature (C)
Section 2.6 Precipitation Has a Distinctive
Global Pattern
 Precipitation is not evenly distributed across
Earth
 Where are the highest/lowest areas?
 What patterns do you see?

Figure 2.16
Precipitation in mm
0 10 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 No data

Global Pattern
 If it is difficult to see a pattern, think of latitude
 Which latitudes have higher precipitation?
 Which latitudes have lower precipitation?
 What is happening at these latitudes?

Figure 2.17
Atmospheric Rising air mass cools,

circulation cells resulting in precipitation
80 200
ITCZ Descending
70
Annual precipitation (cm)

Annual precipitation (in.)
dry air mass

60 150
50
40 100
30
20 50
10
90 60 30 0 30 60 90
(South) Latitude (North)
Global Pattern
 Rising air masses of very warm, humid air near the
equator
 cool and release precipitation – very rainy
 Falling air masses of dry, cool air at 30 N and S
 warm and absorb surface moisture - dry
 Rising air masses of warm, humid air at 50 to 60
N and S
 cool and release precipitation - rainy
 More rain in Southern Hemisphere because of
greater ocean area

Global Pattern
 Seasonal variation in precipitation is caused by a
shift in the Intertropical Convergence Zone

Figure 2.18 Step 1 Slide 1
Northern Hemisphere
summer
Equator

Northern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere

summer autumn and spring
er
Tropic of Canc
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn

Northern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere

summer autumn and spring winter
er
Tropic of Canc
Equator Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn

Figure 2.19
800
(a) Douala,
Cameroon
700
Average rainfall (mm)
600
500
400
300
(b) Niamey,
Niger Less than 25 centimeters
200
From 25 to 50 centimeters
(c) Maun,
100 Botswana From 50 to 100 centimeters
0 From 100 to 200 centimeters

J F M A M J J A S O N D More than 200 centimeters
Month

Section 2.7 Proximity to the Coastline
Influences Climate
 How is the specific heat of land different from the
specific heat of water?
 How does this affect climate?

Section 2.7 Proximity to the Coastline
Influences Climate
 Maritime influence - locations near the coast
(oceans or large bodies of water) have smaller
temperature fluctuations during the year and more
precipitation
 Continentality - locations far from the coast have
greater temperature fluctuations during the year, up
to 100C

Figure 2.20
San Francisco
Saint Louis
35
30
25
Temperature (C)
Saint Louis
20
15
10 San Francisco
5
0
-5
-10
-15
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Section 2.8 Topography Influences
Regional and Local Patterns of Climate
 Mountains affect local and regional climate.
 What types of effects can they have?

 As altitude increases, temperature decreases
 At the same latitude, higher elevations have lower
temperatures than lower elevations
 Example:
 Japan’s Mt. Fuji is 12,389 feet high
 the average temperature at the peak in the warmest
month, August, is 47.8F
 the average temperature in Shizuoka, a nearby city at
low elevation, is 87.1F in the same month

 Mountains can affect precipitation
 When an air mass flows into a mountain
 the air rises and cools (windward side)
 reaches the dew point and precipitation occurs at
higher altitudes
 cool, dry air flows over and down the other side
(leeward)
 warms as it descends, so pulls moisture from the
surface
 Creates a rain shadow on the leeward side

Figure 2.21
Temperature
3000 -4C
2250 2C
Altitude (m)
Prevailing winds
1500 8C
Moist Arid
750 14C
Evaporation
0 20C
Warm ocean

 How does this affect the vegetation?

 How does this affect the vegetation?
 Windward side – higher rainfall
 plant growth more vigorous, trees
 Leeward side – lower rainfall
 plant growth less vigorous, shrubby

Figure 2.22

The Cascades are a major mountain range that runs
North/South through Oregon in the Pacific Northwest.
Based on what you know about prevailing winds at
44 N latitude, which city, Eugene, west of the
Cascades, or Bend, east of the Cascades, would you
predict has more precipitation?
A. Bend has more precipitation.

B. Eugene has more precipitation.
C. They have equal precipitation because they are at
the same latitude.
D. There is not enough information available to answer
this question.

The Cascades are a major mountain range that runs
North/South through Oregon in the Pacific Northwest.
Based on what you know about prevailing winds at
44 N latitude, which city, Eugene, west of the
Cascades, or Bend, east of the Cascades, would you
predict has more precipitation?
A. Bend has more precipitation.

B. Eugene has more precipitation.
C. They have equal precipitation because they are at
the same latitude.
D. There is not enough information available to answer
this question.

Section 2.9 Irregular Variations in Climate
Occur at the Regional Scale
 Not all climate patterns have regular temporal
variation
 Some have long term variation
 these can be regional and global
 Example
 The Little Ice Age – 500 year period of cooling from
1300s to 1800s
 winters were very cold
 glaciers expanded
 harbors froze

 What causes these changes?

 changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit
 changes in the tilt of Earth’s axis
 variation in sunspot activity
 magnetic storms on the sun
 What do these changes affect?

 changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit
 changes in the tilt of Earth’s axis
 variation in sunspot activity
 magnetic storms on the sun
 What do these changes affect?
 The input of solar radiation

 The ocean and atmosphere can interact to affect
climate
 El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
 waters in the eastern Pacific warm up
 sea level pressure drops, but rises in the western
Pacific
 Trade winds weaken
 upwelling in the eastern Pacific is reduced
 warmer waters - increased rainfall in Peru
 cooler waters - drought in Australia/Indonesia

Figure 2.23
Convec I n cr e
t ive loo as e d
p conv
e ction
Wind
s
Equator Equator Movement

Winds Movement of water
Indonesia of water Indonesia
Winds
War Warm
(nutrm upper Peru (nutr upper o Peru
ient o ient p c
poor cean la oor) ean layer
) yer
Cold ( Cold
l owe nutrien l (
owe nutrien
r oc t r oc t
ean rich) ean rich)
l aye laye
r r
(a) Normal conditions (b) El Niño conditions

 La Niña shows the opposite effect, usually less
intense

Figure 2.24
+3
+2
Warm
event +1
El Niño
Index 0
La Niña
-1
Cold
event
-2
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Section 2.10 Most Organisms Live in
Microclimates
 Organisms may experience conditions very different
from the general climate conditions in an area
 Think of a fallen tree in the woods. What are the
differences in the conditions on the top of a standing
tree versus a tree that is lying on the ground?

Section 2.10 Most Organisms Live in
Microclimates
 These microclimates can be affected by
 soil temperature
 moisture
 wind movement
 evaporation
 vegetation
 Shading by vegetation can reduce the range of
temperature variation by 7 to 12ºC when compared to
bare soil

Local climate can be affected by topography. What do
the data in this figure tell you about the effect of slope
position (N vs. S) and vegetation (forested vs.
exposed) on temperature during the day? Temperature
is
A. always higher on exposed slopes.

B. more variable on exposed S slopes.
C. always lower on forested slopes.
D. less variable on exposed N slopes.
E. related to slope position but not vegetation.

Figure 2.25
40
Sex
35
W
30
Temperature (C) Sfo
Nex
25
Nfo
20
15
10
0
3 a.m. 6 9 12 3 p.m. 6 9 12
Time
Key
W: Standard weather station on ridge
Nfo: Microclimate station on forested north-facing slope
Nex: Microclimate station on exposed north-facing slope
Sfo: Microclimate station on forested south-facing slope
Sex: Microclimate station on exposed south-facing slope
Local climate can be affected by topography. What do
the data in this figure tell you about the effect of slope
position (N vs. S) and vegetation (forested vs.
exposed) on temperature during the day? Temperature
is
A. always higher on exposed slopes.

B. more variable on exposed S slopes.
C. always lower on forested slopes.
D. less variable on exposed N slopes.
E. related to slope position but not vegetation.

Ecological Issues & Applications: Rising Atmospheric
Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases are Altering
Earth’s Climate
 The average surface temperature of Earth has been
increasing since the early 1900s
 The ten warmest years are all after 2000

Figure 2.26
.6
Temperature Anomaly (C)
Annual Mean
.4 5–year Running Mean
.2
-.2
-.4
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year
Earth’s Climate
 Review the Greenhouse Effect
 What is it?
 Which atmospheric gases are important to this
effect?

Earth’s Climate
 Based on these figures, what trend do you see in
the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the
atmosphere?
 What are the sources of this carbon dioxide?

Figure 2.28
9000
8000
Carbon (Millions of tons)

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
(a) Year
3
Annual emissions to the
atmosphere (Gt C)
0
1850 1900 1950 2000
(b) Year
Earth’s Climate
 Based on what you have learned in this chapter, is it
possible that this increase in carbon dioxide is
related to the increase in the mean temperature of
the Earth? Why or why not?

Earth’s Climate
 Is the temperature uniform across the globe or is
there variation? If there is variation, describe the
pattern.

Figure 2.29
90
Dec-Jan-Feb
60 Mar-Apr-May
Jun-Jul-Aug
Sep-Oct-Nov
30 Annual Mean
Latitude
0
-30
-60
-90
-1.0 -.5 0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-2.1 -2 -1.5 -1 -.5 -.1 .1 .5 1 1.5 2 2.9 Temperature change (C)
Temperature change (C)
(a) (b)

Earth’s Climate
 What effects will warming have in the polar regions,
both the Arctic and Antarctic?
 How will this affect the organisms that live there?
 How will this affect organisms in other parts of the
world?

02 Lecture Presentation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

02 Lecture Presentation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER

 What is the difference between climate and

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Weather occurs at a specific place/time

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Climate is the long-term average pattern of weather

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 What is solar radiation?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Solar radiation is electromagnetic energy

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ultraviolet Visible Near infrared Far infrared

100 280 500 1000 5000 10,000 100,000

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The hotter an object, the shorter the wavelengths of

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 What happens to solar radiation when it reaches the

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Some energy that reaches Earth is reflected back

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Think about light striking snow. How much is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Think about light striking snow. How much is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 What happens to solar radiation when it reaches

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Some energy that reaches Earth is absorbed by the

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 What happens to the energy emitted from Earth’s

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 What happens to the energy emitted from Earth’s

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Greenhouses gases absorb longwave radiation

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Net radiation = (Incoming SW - Reflected SW)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Net radiation  incoming solar (shortwave) radiation

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Net radiation = (Incoming SW - Reflected SW)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Average annual surface net radiation varies across

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Net Radiation (W/m2)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 As you move away from the equator to higher

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 This leads to a distinct pattern of global

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Solar radiation falls

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Solar radiation falls

(a) Summer solstice

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Solar radiation falls directly on

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.