MODELS OF THE ATOM

Beginning with Rutherford

Section 7.5
PROBLEMS WITH RUTHERFORD’S
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
MODEL

 It didn’t explain WHY metals and metal

compounds give off characteristic colors when
they are flame tested
 It didn’t explain why metals glow when heated
– first red, orange yellow and then white
 It didn’t explain the CHEMICAL properties of
elements

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Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

BOHR’S THEORY
Electrons are located at
specific energy levels
surrounding the nucleus

Each rung on the ladder

represents an energy level

The higher the energy level

– the farther it is from the
nucleus
Bohr thought the electrons moved in fixed

ORBITS around the nucleus – we know

this is
not true today
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 Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

BOHR MODEL
 First model of the electron structure
 Gives levels where an electron is most likely to be found

 Incorrect today, but a key in understanding the atom

4 Return to TOC
 Section 7.4
The Bohr Model
• Bohr’s model gave hydrogen atom energy levels
consistent with the hydrogen emission spectrum.
• Ground state – lowest possible energy state (n = 1)
• Bohr’s model is incorrect. This model only works for
hydrogen.
• Electrons do not move around the nucleus in
circular orbits.
Electronic Transitions in

Electronic Transitions the Bohr Model for the

in the Bohr Model for Hydrogen Atom

the Hydrogen Atom

b) An Orbit-Transition

a) An Energy-Level Diagram, Which

Diagram for Electronic Accounts for the Return to TOC

5
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
SCHRÖDINGER'S THEORY

 He agreed that electrons have

a specific amount of energy
 He believed that the distance
between rungs on the ladder The electrons move
were not consistent – they get
closer together as you move in regions of
higher up
 Quantum – the amount of probability around
energy needed to move from
one energy level to another the nucleus called

ORBITALS

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Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

Quantum theory, also called wave mechanics, describes the

arrangement and space occupied by electrons. Orbitals
refers to the three-dimensional regions in space where there
is a high probability of finding an electron around an atom.

7 Return to TOC
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ELECTRONS
 Extremely small mass
 Located outside the nucleus
 Moving at extremely high speeds in a
sphere
 Have specific energy levels

8 Return to TOC
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

ENERGY OF ELECTRONS
 When atoms are heated, bright lines appear called
line spectra
 Electrons in atoms arranged in discrete levels.
 Anelectron absorbs energy to “jump” to a higher
energy level.
 When an electron falls to a lower energy level,
energy is emitted.
9 Return to TOC
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

LOSS AND GAIN OF ENERGY

G L

a o

I s

n s

10 Return to TOC
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
LEARNING CHECK
Answer with
1) Energy absorbed 2) Energy emitted
3) No change in energy
A. What energy change takes place when an
electron in a hydrogen atom moves from the first
(n=1) to the second shell (n=2)?
B. What energy change takes place when the
electron moves from the third shell to the second
shell?

11 Return to TOC
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

SOLUTION
A. 1) Energy absorbed

B. 2) Energy emitted

12 Return to TOC
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

• We do not know the detailed pathway of an electron.

• The electrons move in regions of probability around the nucleus called

ORBITALS
RELATIVE ORBITAL SIZE
 Difficult to define precisely.
 Orbital is a wave function.
 Picture an orbital as a three-dimensional electron
density map.
 Hydrogen 1s orbital:
 Radius of the sphere that encloses 90% of the total
electron probability. 13

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Section 7.5
The
THEQuantum Mechanical
ELECTRONS MOVEModel of the Atom
IN REGIONS OF
PROBABILITY AROUND THE NUCLEUS CALLED
ORBITALS

DEFINING THESE ORBITALS:

Quantum Numbers are used to define:
 The energy of the electron

 The electron’s relative distance from the nucleus

 The size and shape of the ORBITAL

 The pairings of the electrons

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Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
QUANTUM NUMBERS
Principle Quantum Number (n) – define the
energy of the electron

n=1 is closest to the nucleus – low energy

n=2 is farther than n=1, slightly more energy
n=3 is farther than n=1 and n=2, still increasing in
energy
n=4 …..
Remember – The difference in energy between
energy levels decreases as “n” increases

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Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

SUBLEVELS
Within each principle energy level (n) – there are
sublevel(s).
The larger the value of ‘n’, the more sublevels you can
have.
Sublevels – named by their shape
s – sphere p – pear
d- dumbbell f - fundamental

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 Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
TWO REPRESENTATIONS FOR AN S ORBITAL

Figure 3.16, pg. 77

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Investigating Chemistry, 2nd Edition

Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
REPRESENTATIONS FOR P ORBITALS
EACH ORBITAL CAN HOLD UP TO 2 ELECTRONS,
REGARDLESS OF SHAPE. THIS SET OF THREE ORBITALS
HOLDS 6 ELECTRONS.

Figure 3.17, pg. 77

Investigating Chemistry, 2nd Edition

© 2009 W.H. Freeman & Company

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 Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
THERE IS A SET OF FIVE DIFFERENT D ORBITALS.
THERE IS A SET OF SEVEN F ORBITALS.
EACH ORBITAL REGARDLESS OF ITS SHAPE HOLDS 2
ELECTRONS.

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Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

1s Orbital

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20
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Two Representations
of the Hydrogen 1s,
2s, and 3s Orbitals

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21
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

2px Orbital

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22
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

2py Orbital

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23
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

2pz Orbital

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24
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

The Boundary Surface Representations of All Three 2p Orbitals

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25
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

3dx -y Orbital
2 2

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26
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

3dxy Orbital

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27
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

3dxz Orbital

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28
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

3dyz Orbital

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29
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

3d z 2 Orbital

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30
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

The Boundary Surfaces of All of the 3d Orbitals

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31
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies
Representation of the 4f Orbitals in Terms of Their Boundary
Surfaces

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32
Section 7.5
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
SUBLEVELS
Principle Energy Level Sublevel
n= 1 s

n=2 s and p

n=3 s and p and d

n=4 s, p, d, and f
NOTICE: The value of ‘n’ tells you how many sublevels
are present in that energy level

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Section 7.6
Quantum Numbers

• Principal quantum number (n) – size and energy

of the orbital.
• Angular momentum quantum number (l) – shape
of atomic orbitals (sometimes called a subshell).
• Magnetic quantum number (ml) – orientation of
the orbital in space relative to the other orbitals
in the atom.

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34
QUANTUM NUMBERS FOR THE FIRST FOUR LEVELS OF
ORBITALS IN THE HYDROGEN ATOM

35
Section 7.6
Quantum Numbers

Exercise

For principal quantum level n = 3,

determine the number of allowed subshells
(different values of l), and give the
designation of each. (hint refer to previous
chart)
# of allowed subshells = 3
l = 0, 3s
l = 1, 3p
l = 2, 3d
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36
Section 7.6
Quantum Numbers

Exercise

For l = 2, determine the magnetic quantum

numbers (ml) and the number of orbitals.
(note refer to previous chart)

magnetic quantum numbers = –2, – 1, 0, 1, 2

number of orbitals = 5

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37
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Locating these on the Periodic Table

Principle Energy Level (n) – is the period in the periodic
table

The Sublevels are located in specific regions – Color these

together

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 Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies
• The periodic table is structured so that elements with the same type of valence electron configuration are

arranged in columns.

•The left-most columns include the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals. In these elements the valence s
orbitals are being filled

• On the right hand side, the right-most block of six elements are those in which the valence p

orbitals are being filled

• In the middle is a block of ten columns that contain transition metals. These are elements in which d orbitals are

being filled

• Below this group are two rows with 14 columns. These are commonly referred to the f-block metals. In these
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columns the f orbitals are being filled 39

 Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies
• The periodic table is structured so that elements with the same type of valence electron configuration are

arranged in columns.

Important facts to remember:

•2, 6, 10 and 14 are the number of electrons that can fill the s, p, d and f subshells (the l=0,1,2,3
azimuthal quantum number)

•The 1s subshell is the first s subshell, the 2p is the first p subshell

•3d is the first d subshell, and the 4f is the first f subshell Return to TOC

40
Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Naming the sublevels

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f

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Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Orbitals
Orbitals are regions of probability – each orbital can hold a
maximum of 2 e-

The ‘s’ sublevel has 1 orbital

The ‘p’ sublevel has 3 orbitals
The ‘d’ sublevel has 5 orbitals
The ‘f’ sublevel has 7 orbitals

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Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Orbitals
Do you have to memorize this?

NO
Look at the sublevel regions that you colored in on your
periodic table.

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Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Orbitals
Count how many electrons are in the ‘s’ sublevel
2
This means that since there are two electrons, and each
orbital can hold two electrons, that there is only ONE
orbital.

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Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Orbitals
Count how many electrons are in the ‘p’ sublevel
6
This means that since there are six electrons, and each
orbital can hold two electrons, that there are THREE
orbitals.

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Section 7.7
Orbital Shapes and Energies

Orbitals
Count how many electrons are in the ‘d’ sublevel
10
This means that since there are ten electrons, and each
orbital can hold two electrons, that there are FIVE
orbitals.

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ORBITALS
Count how many electrons are in the ‘f’ sublevel
14
This means that since there are fourteen electrons, and each
orbital can hold two electrons, that there are SEVEN
orbitals.