SOCIAL PROBLEM

• A social problem is any condition or

behavior that has negative consequences
for large numbers of people and that is
generally recognized as a condition or
behavior that needs to be addressed.
 SOCIAL PROBLEM

A social problem has been defined as “a

situation confronting a group or a section of
society which inflicts injurious consequences
that can be handled only collectively”.

Walsh and Furfey have defined a social

problem as a “deviation from the social ideal
remediable by group effort”.
Two elements are important in this definition;
first a situation which is less than ideal,
which is undesirable or abnormal and
second one which is remedial by collective
effort.
 Definition of Social Problem

• Horton and Leslie: It is often defined as a

condition which many people consider
undesirable and wish to correct.

• Lindbergh: “It is any deviant behavior in a

disapproved direction of such a degree
that it exceeds the tolerance limit of the
community“.
• L.K. Frank: Any difficulty of misbehavior of
a fairly large number of persons which we
wish to remove or correct.”

• Fuler & Mayer: “A social problem starts

with the awakening of people in a given
locality, with the realization of certain
cherished values that are threatened by
the conditions which have become acute.”
 Characteristics of social problems:

1. All social problems are situations which

have injurious conse­quences for society.
2. All social problems are deviations from
the ‘ideal’ situation.
3, All social problems have some common
basis of origin.
 Characteristics of social problems:

4. All social problems are social in origin.

5. All social problems are caused by
pathological social conditions.
6. All social problems are interconnected.
7. All social problems are social in their
results, that is, they affect all sections of
society.
 Characteristics of social problems:

• 8.The responsibility for social problems is

social, that is, they require a collective
approach for their solution.
• 10. Social Problems occur in all societies.
Characteristics of social problems:
• Social problems arise by being collectively defined as
objectionable by many members of the community.
• Social problems change when the concerned
behavioural patterns are interpreted differently.
• Mass media play an important role in creating
awareness about the scope and urgency of social
problems,
• Social problems can be viewed in the context of
society’s values and institutions,
• Social problems need to be analysed in terms of the
influences upon them by group processes and social
relationships.
 Causes of Social Problems

• The causes of social problems may be

three-fold but cannot be treated in
isolation:
• (i) Individual
• (ii) Cultural
• (iii)Structural
Three factors are important in the understanding of
the causal factors in social problems:
the potential causes of social problems found in
social environ­ment are:

(a) Contradictions in social systems,

(b) Malfunctioning of economic systems,
(c) Lack of change in religious systems, and
(d) De­fective functioning of political systems.
(2) Social problems provide a strong basis of
common causal factors.
(3) Social problems are interre­lated and
interdependent in the sense that they are
cumulatively pro-motive and provocative,
that is, they foster and encourage one an­
other.
• Reinhardt (1952:7-12) has referred to
three factors in the develop­ment of social
problems:
• Differentiation and Multiplication of
Interests and Functions
• Accelerating Frequency of Social Change
or Growth of Civilization
• Man’s Developed Insight to Make a
Scientific Analysis
Consequences

• Social problem very adversely affect our

society.
• One of the major effects is that our
harmony disturbed and in its stead in the
society there is hostility and suspicion.
These also result in large-scale social
dissatisfaction and create suffering and
misery.
THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO SOCIAL PROBLEMS

• Social Disorganization Approach:

• Social disorganization is a condition of a society, community or group in

which there is a breakdown of social control, or of social order, or of
formal or informal norms that define permissible behaviour. It is
characterized by the lack of cooperation, common values, unity,
discipline and predictability.
• a state of society characterized by the breakdown of effective social
control resulting in a lack of functional integration between groups,
conflicting social attitudes, and personal maladjustment

• Social disorganization occurs when there is a change in the equilibrium

of forces, a breakdown of the social structure so that the former patterns
no longer apply, and the accepted forms of social control no longer
function effectively.
Emile Durkheim defined social disorganisation as
“a state of disequilibrium and a lack of social
solidarity or consensus among the members of a
society.”
W.I. Thomas and Florien Znaniecki conceived of
social disorganisation as “a decrease of the
influence of existing rules of behaviour upon
individual members of the groups.”
According to Elliott and Merrill, “Social
disorganisation is the process by which the
relationship between members of the group are
broken or dissolved.” on the basis of these
definitions it may be said that social
disorganisation refers to serious mal-adjustments
rather than unadjustments in society so that they
fail to satisfy the needs of the individuals
satisfactorily.
Society, as we know, is the web of social
relationships. In an organised society social
relations have some patterns and mechanisms.
When the relations become disordered or
disintegrated there is social disorganisation.
Social disorganisation, therefore, is to be
considered in terms of functional disequilibrium, it
is disequilibrium within customs,institutions,
groups, communities and societies.
It may be, however, noted that no objective criteria
for measuring the degree of disorganisation are
available; whether a situation represents
organisation or disorganisation is largely a matter
of subjective judgment. For example, divorce may
be thought of as signifying family disorganisation.
Actually it may be due to a better knowledge of the
divorce laws and altered attitudes towards
marriage.
Cultural Lag approach

Cultural lag is a situation in which some parts of

a culture change at a faster rate than other
related parts resulting in the disruption of
integration and equilibrium of the culture.
The theory of cultural lag in particular holds that
in modern societies there has been a tendency
for change in the political, educational, family and
religious institutions to fall behind technological
changes. The first quarter of the 20th century
thus remained a period of cultural lag.
 VALUE CONFLICT APPROACH
• A value is a generalized principle of behaviour to which
the members of a group feel a strong, emotionally-toned
positive commitment and which provides a standard for
judging specific acts and goals. Each member of the
group is expected to remain committed to the values
accepted by the group. Values, thus, provide the
generalized standards of behaviour. Ex­amples of values
are equality, justice, communal harmony, patriotism,
mobility, collectivism, compromise, sacrifice, adjustment
and so forth. Because of the strong emotional feeling
attached to values and because they serve as standards
for judging concrete goals or actions, they are often
regarded as absolute (Theodorson, 1969: 456).
• Different groups have different systems of
values. Incompatibility between the values
of two or more groups to the extent that
the role per­formance of individuals is
interfered whith is called ‘value conflict’.
This state of conflict may last only a short
while or it may be a persistent problem.
• For example, conflict in values of workers and employers
leads to industrial unrest, strikes and lockouts; or conflict
in values between land owners and landless labourers
leads to agrarian unrest or agricul­tural labourers’
movements; or the liberal businessmen may believe in
encouraging hard work, thrift, honesty and ambition and
may reward these virtues financially, but on the other
hand, the conservatives may differ profoundly with this
view and may believe in the profit motive and individual
initiative. Liberals and conservatives thus differ not only
on matters of policies but more profoundly on those of
values.
• The value conflict theorists like Waller, Fuller, Cuber and
Harper hold that clashes in value system are of basic
importance in the origin and development of social
problems. Waller (1936:924) has referred to the conflict
between ‘organizational’ and ‘humanitarian’ values. The
former favour private property and individualism, while
the latter are vo­taries of remedying the misfortunes of
others. But this theoretical approach is too vague.
• The pro-pounders have not explained their
views in concrete details. It is true that our
current values overemphasize money and
material possessions and this attitude
encourages corruption, smuggling, drug
trafficking, black-marketing, and taking of
bribes but problems like white-collar crime
cannot be re­duced to a conflict of values.
• The value conflict theory may be useful in some areas
like economics, in the analy­sis of social problems, but it
certainly cannot be accepted as a universal explanation.
On applying the value conflict approach, questions which
are gener­ally asked (Horton and Leslie, 1970:40) are:
What are the values that are in conflict? How deep is the
value conflict? What groups in the society hold to each of
the competing values? How powerful are they? Which
values are more consistent with other larger values such
as democracy and freedom? What value sacrifices
would each solution require? Are some problems
insoluble at present because of certain irreconcilable
value conflicts?
 Personal Deviation Approach:
Deviation is non-conformity to social norms. It is different
from abnor­mal behaviour because the latter connotes
psychological illness rather than social maladjustment or
conflict. Thus, people who deviate from social norms are
not necessarily mentally ill. In the social disorganization
approach to social problems, one looks to the rules that
have broken down and the changes that have taken place
because of the breaking of the rules. In personal deviation
approach, one looks to the motivation and behaviour of the
deviants who are instru­mental in causing the problems.
• Two factors that need explanation in the
personal deviation approach are:

• (i) How does personal deviancy de­velop?

• (ii) What types of personal deviation are

frequently involved in social problems?
 Personal deviancy develops because of either:

• An in­dividual’s inability to follow generally accepted

norms, or
• An individual’s failure to accept generally accepted
norms.

The first is caused because of a person’s emotional, social

or biological deficiency, that is, some persons are so
constituted biologically, emotionally, or so­cially that they are
incapable of adhering consistently to generally accepted
standards. The socially deficient do not truly violate norms;
rather they manifest an inability to learn and follow the
norms. The cause of emotional deficiency is bio-
psychological. These deviants that constitute social
problems and also contribute to problems often require
medical, psychiatric and environmental or social therapies.
• On the other hand, an individual’s failure to accept social
norms has something to do with deficiency in
socialization. These individuals, though have learnt the
norms and values like honesty, truthfulness, integrity,
justice and co­operation, they cannot put them into
practice.
• They remain disposed to telling lies, cheating, exploiting,
and defaming others when it suits their pur­poses. Their
deviance does not produce any guilt-feeling or shame in
them. They may change sides abruptly and completely
on a social issue if it serves their purpose. They care
little whether social problems exist and whether they are
solved or not so long the situation can be used for their
vested interest.
Horton and Leslie (1970:35-36) have referred to three
types of per­sonal deviations:

• Deviation that results from conformity to norms of

diverse reference groups. Because of cultural variability,
most people are exposed to different sets of norms that
may be in conflict with one an­other. For example, a
person may belong to one religion or caste but his
professional role may literally force him to deviate from
the norms of his religion/caste. Similarly, a clerk as well
as an officer may accept bribe because it serves
economic interests,

• (ii) Deviation that results from the existence of deviant

sub-cultures, for example, the criminal norms in slum
areas of large cities,
• (iii) Outright deviation from generally ac­cepted norms.
Deliberately hiding one’s income while, filling income tax
returns provides a good example of this type of
deviation.

• In applying the personal deviation approach to social

problems, the questions asked (Horton and Leslie,
1970:37) are: What deviant per­sons/groups are
involved? Are deviants themselves the problem or they
help creating the problem? What deviant sub-cultures
are involved? What alternatives are there for dealing with
the deviants?
The first is caused because of person’s emotional,
social, or biological deficiency i.e. some persons are
so constituted biologically, emotionally or socially that
they are incapable of adhering consistently to
generally accepted standards. The socially deficient do
not truly violate norms; rather they manifest an inability
to learn and follow the norms. On the other hand, an
individual’s failure to accept social norms has
something to do with deficiency in socialization. These
individual, though have learnt the norms and values
but they cannot put them into practice. Their deviance
does not produce any guilt feeling or shame in them.
 Anomie Approach:
• This approach was propounded by Merton.
Anomie is a condition char­acterized by the
relative absence or weakening or confusion of
norms and values in a society or a group.
Anomie involves a breakdown in the cultural
structure, occurring particularly when there is
disjunction between cultural norms and goals
and the socially structured capacities of
members of the group to act in accordance with
them.
• Anomie is the counterpart of the idea of social
solidarity. Just as so­cial solidarity is a state of
collective ideological integration, anomie is a
state of confusion, insecurity and normlessness.
According to Merton, the disjunction between
goals and means and the consequent strain
leads to the weakening of men’s commitment to
the culturally prescribed goals or institutionalized
means, that is, to a state of anomie.
• Merton maintains that people adapt
themselves to this disjunction either by re­
jecting the cultural goals or the
institutionalized means or both. Merton,
thus, locates the sources of strain not in
the characteristics of individuals but in the
culture and/or social structure.
• He says, “the social problem arises not from
people fail­ing to live up to the requirements of
their social statuses but from the faulty
organization of these statuses into a reasonably
coherent social system” (Merton and Nisbet,
1971:823). However, Merton’s theory is
incomplete and inadequate. All social problems
cannot be perceived as the result of the
responses to strains or mode of adaptation and
adjustment.
• Methods of Sociology a) Comparative
method- Historical method- Statistical
method-Case study- Survey method-
Scientific method
• b) Limitations of Scientific method in
Sociology- Sociology as a Science.
 Sociology

• Sociology as the systematic study of

society and social interaction. The word
“sociology” is derived from the Latin word
socius (companion) and the Greek word
logos (science or study) . Sociology is the
study of society, It uses many different
methods to study a wide range of subject
matter and to apply these studies to the
real world.
• Sociology is the study of groups and group
interactions, societies and social
interactions, from small and personal
groups to very large groups.
 Society

• A group of people who live in a defined

geographic area, who interact with one
another, and who share a common culture
is what sociologists call a society.
Sociologists study all aspects and levels of
society.
Sociology incorporates the study of social phenomena,
social life, groups, institutions, associations and societies. It
focuses on society from a scientific point of view. Sociology
has a vast scope. It ranges from Individual to grouped
social systems. The principles of sociology explain the
behaviour of human beings and their existence with respect
to their mutual interaction.
• ‘In the broadest sense, sociology is the
study of human interactions and
• interrelations, their conditions and
consequences.’
• —Morris Ginsberg
sociology is called as a social science? More than
any other discipline,sociology deals with things
that are already familiar to most people. All of us
live in society, and we already know lot about the
subject matter of sociology — social groups,
institutions,
norms, relationships and so on— through our own
experience. It seems fair, then, to ask what makes
the sociologist different from other members of
society. Why should s/he be called a social
scientist?
As with all scientific disciplines, the crucial element
here is method, or the procedures through which
knowledge is gathered.
sociologists can claim to be different from lay
persons not because of how much they know or
what they know,but because of how they acquire
their knowledge. This is one reason for the
special importance of method in sociology.
There is no single unique road to sociological truth.
Of course, different methods are more or less
suited to tackle different types of research
questions. Moreover, every method has its own
strengths and weaknesses. It is more important to
ask if the method chosen is the appropriate one for
answering the question that is being asked.
 Comparative method
The choice of method is usually dictated by the
nature of the research question being addressed
by the preferences of the researcher, and by
the constraints of time and/or resources.
In order to tackle the problems of society
effectively and to make fruitful discoveries,
Sociology has to employ precise and well-tested
methods of investigation.
 Comparative method
The comparative method is one such method. This method
is as old as Aristotle for it is known that he had made use of
this method in his study of political systems.

But it became “the method par excellence of sociology’ only

in the 19th century. Sociologists and social investigators
like Comte, Durkheim, Tylor, J.G,; Frazer, Weber,
Hobhouse, Wheeler, Ginsberg, Gouldner, G.P. Murdock,
S.F. Nadel, S.M. Lipset and R. Bendix, E.R. Leach, and
others have not only used this method in their studies but
also made it sufficiently popular.
 Comparative method

• The comparative method is nothing more

than the process of making comparisons.
• The comparative method, so called, is the
process of comparing situations, groups,
cultures, or whatever, which are similar
and yet which differ in known ways.
• the aim of the comparative method is to
develop, examine and re-formulate
hypotheses and to that extent it is a
systematic approach.
• Cross-cultural research in anthropology
also employs this method.
• Analytic induction in ethnographic
research, using constant comparative
method is one codified form of the
comparative method, although this does
not explore differences at a structural
level.

•
• Comparisons have served as a tool for
developing classifications of social phenomena
and for establishing whether shared phenomena
can be explained by the same causes. For many
sociologists, comparisons have provided an
analytical framework for examining (and
explaining) social and cultural differences. More
recently, as greater emphasis has been placed
on contextualisation, cross-national comparisons
have served increasingly as a means of gaining
a better understanding of different societies,
their structures and institutions.
• Throughout the 19th century there was a strong link
between the use of the comparative method and the
evolutionist approach. Durkheim set out clearly the
significance of this method in his “The Rules of
Sociological Method”. According to him, the sociological
explanation consists entirely in the establishment of
causal connections’. In the case of natural sciences, the
causal connections could be more easily established
because of facility of experiment. Since such direct
experiments are out of question in sociology, we are
compelled to use the method of indirect experiment, i.e.,
compara­tive method-says Durkheim
• Durkheim in his work “Division of Labour in
Society” compared the legal systems of different
societies at the same time and at different levels
of development. In that he used law as an index
of the moral character of society. By comparison
“he tested his hypothesis that an increase in the
divi­sion of labour is accompanied by a change in
the nature of social integration or solidarity”.
• Further, Durkheim in his study of “Suicide ”
aimed to discover the social causes of
suicide by relating the rates of suicide in
different social groups to characteristics of
the groups. He showed that “the suicide
rates varied inversely with the degree of
social cohesion and with the degree of
stability of moral norms”.
• By employing this method it may be possible to
explain the significance of a custom or practice,
though it varies from one society to another, by
studying the motives behind it.
• By adopting this method it is quite possible to
establish correlations between crime and
urbanisation, between family size and social
mobility, between social class and educational
attain­ment, between urban living and divorce or
delinquency rates, etc. Studies of this kind have
resulted in a number of generalisations also.
• It is true that the comparative method has its own
limitations. Critics have pointed out that “what appear
superficially to be similar institutions may, in fact, be very
different in the societies being considered”..

• The coments denote practical difficulties involved in the

application of the method. As Bottomore has suggested
these difficulties could be minimised by limiting the range
of comparisons to societies which are broadly similar.
• In spite of its deficiencies, the comparative method has
been widely used today in sociological studies. E.A.
Freeman claimed that “the establishment of the
comparative method of study has been the greatest
intellectual achievement of our time.”
• As Durkheim said, in the absence of experimental
method comparative method is the only method
available to the sociological disciplines. Due to the
success attained by employing this method in small-
scale studies in particular societies, sociologists are
encouraged to make comparisons between societies.
Such higher-level comparisons between societies and
nations are necessary to verify the conclusions of the
small-scale studies.
Historical Method

• Historical approaches in sociology is

research method to study the social
formation and transformation.
• “Historical” studies examine social
processes over time, highlighting contexts
and contingencies that influence specific
changes while looking for general
patterns.
Historians are more interested in reconstructing events,
understanding phenomenon and explaining processes.
Partly this has to do with the nature of the source material
which comes to us from the past.
It is more scattered, less systematised and cannot
necessarily be moulded to suit the questions under
research. It is not so much the questions that
determine the nature of the evidence to be collected, rather
questions in historical research often get framed on the
basis of the material available for research.
Historical Method:
• The Historical Method consists of a study of events,
processes and institutions of past civilizations for the
purpose of finding the origins or antecedents of
contemporary social life and thus of understanding its
nature and working.
• History and Sociology are so much inter-related that
some of the sociologists like G. E. Howard regard history
to be past Sociology, and Sociology present History, it is
evident that our present forms of social life, our customs
or ways of living have their roots in the past and they
can, therefore, be best explained when they are traced
back to their sources. This can be possible only with the
help of History. Social heritage is another name for
history.
• The historical facts, as contained in life histories, diaries,
etc., may be revealing but they have little use for
scientific investigation, they may not be able to answer
all the questions that may be raised, by a sociologist.
Further, the historical facts also run the risk of not being
studied objectively by the interpreters.

• The Historical Method, therefore, was being not wholly

adequate and dependable for the study of social
phenomenon, calls for the employment of other methods
for enquiry into field of sociology.
The Social Survey Method:
• Social survey is the most commonly used research
technique in Sociology. It is a methodical gathering of
social data from a sample of the target population
through standardized interviews or questionnaires.
• The data thus collected is collated and systematically
analyzed quantitatively. It provides descriptive
information about the variables studied, correlations
between two or more variables, and causal analysis.
A survey is a research method used for collecting
data from a predefined group of respondents to
gain information and insights into various topics of
interest. it can be conducted it in many ways
depending on the methodology chosen and the
study’s goal. In the year 2020, research is of
extreme importance and hence it’s essential for us
to understand the benefits of social research for a
target population using the right survey tool.
• Bogardus:
• “A social survey is the collection of data concerning the
living and working conditions, broadly speaking, of the
people in a given community”.

• Thus social survey is concerned with collection of data

relating to some problems of social importance with a
view to formulating a constructive programme for its
solution. It is conducted within a fixed geographical limit.
Social surveys are of various types.
Definitions:
 According to Dictionary of Sociology- “ A term used
rather loosely to indicate a more or less orderly and
comprehensive or some phase of it. e.g. Health, education,
recreation.
 According to Hsin pao yang-“A social survey is usually an
enquiry into the composition, activities and living conditions
of a group of people.”
 According to Morse- “The Survey is, in brief simply a
method of analysis in scientific and orderly form and for
defined purposes of a given social situation or problem or
population.”
• Characteristics of Social Survey
• 1. Study of social phenomena and problems
• 2. A methodology of Social research
• 3. Relating to a specific geographical area
• 4. Use of Scientific method
• 5. Cooperative process
• 6. Study and treatment of problems
Objectives of social survey:

• a) Collection of data related to the social aspect

of community : Social survey studies individuals
as members of society and in this way studies
social circumstances and problems.
• b) Study of social problems, labor class and its
problems- In social survey social problems of the
labor class like illiteracy, poverty, in sanitation,
unemployment, drinking, crime, juvenile
delinquency, prostitution, labor problems etc, are
studied.

• c) Practical and utilitarian view point- Studies of social
survey are made from a practical and utilitarian view
point in order that Characteristics of Social Survey
• suggestions for constructive programs in solving different
• problems may be offered.
• d) Search for causal, relationship- Every social event has
some reason or the other, so social survey is also done
to find out the reasons behind the incident.
• e) Re –testing of social theories- one of its main
objectives is to retest social theories.
• f) Formulation and testing of Hypothesis 
• A survey is conducted by sending a set of pre-decided
questions to a sample of individuals from a target
market. This will lead to a collection of information and
feedback from individuals that belong to various
backgrounds, ethnicities, age-groups etc.
• Surveys can be conducted via online and offline
mediums. Due to the improvement in technological
mediums and their reach, online mediums have
flourished and there is an increase in the number of
people depending on online survey software to conduct
regular surveys and polls.
Subject matter of social survey:-
Demographic features
information as household composition, marital status are family
planning programmes etc. the social conditions to which people are
subjective this includes occupation, incomes, a housing amenities
Social activities- Social activities such as expenditure pattern, radio
listening newspaper reading
Opinion and attitude – Under this category are included surveys
which are conducted to know the views, attitudes,values, and
mental conditions of the people on various topics. Surveys
conducted to get public opinion about referendum, untouchability,
widow marriage, election related vote, etc are included under it.
• Conclusion:-
• Social survey is a process by which quantitative
facts are collected about the social aspects of a
community’s composition and activities. The
• survey remains of the most powerful, efficient,
and cost effective method of research.
 CASE STUDY
Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a
comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a person,
a group, a social institution, a district or a community.”7 In
brief, we can say that case study method is a form of
qualitative analysis where in careful and complete
observation of an individual or a situation or an institution is
done; efforts are made to study each and every aspect of
the concerning unit in minute details and then from case
data generalisations and inferences are drawn.
Characteristics:
Under this method the researcher can take one single
social unit or more of such units for his study purpose; he
may even take a situation to study the same
comprehensively.
2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is
studied in minute details. Generally, the study extends over
a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the
unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct
inferences.
3. In the context of this method we make complete study of
the social unit covering all facets. Through this method we
try to understand the complex of factors that are operative
within a social unit as an integrated totality. 4
4 Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative
and not quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not
collected. Every possible effort is made to collect
information concerning all aspects of life. As such, case
study deepens our perception and gives us a clear
insight into life. For instance, under this method we not only
study how many crimes a man has done but shall peep into
the factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are
making a case study of a man as a criminal. The objective
of the study may be to suggest ways to reform the criminal.
5. In respect of the case study method an effort is made to
know the mutual inter-relationship of causal factors.
6. Under case study method the behaviour pattern
of the concerning unit is studied directly and not by
an indirect and abstract approach.
7. Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses
along with the data which may be helpful in testing
them, and thus it enables the generalised
knowledge to get richer and richer. In its
absence, generalised social science may get
handicapped.
The Statistical Method:
• The Statistical Method is used to measure social
phenomenon mathematically that is with the help of
figures. According to Bogardus, “Social Statistics is
mathematics applied to human facts.” Odum writes,
“Statistics which is the science of numbering and
measuring phenomena objectively is an essential core of
research.

• Explaining the meaning of statistical method, James

Smith writes, “Statistical method is a term used to
describe the process of interpreting facts by the use of
statistics and statistical theory.”
• It is obvious that Statistics can be used with advantage
where the problem can be expressed in quantitative
terms as in measuring the growth of population, the
increase of birth and death rates, rise and fall in income
etc. Prof. Giddings was the first great sociologist to
emphasise the importance of statistics for sociological
researches.
• Much of the research work in Sociology is currently
being carried on with the help of the data collected
through statistics, for example, in studying population,
migration, economic conditions, human ecology etc.
• But the great difficulty in adopting the statistical method
is that mostly the social problems are qualitative and not
quantitative. This method can, therefore, be used in a
limited sphere only.

• In American sociology statistics have played an

important role. There sociologists have been able to
reduce more and more of sociological data to
quantitative terms and thus to deal with them statistically.
Scientific Methods

what is science?
Science refers to a systematic and
organized body of knowledge in any area of
inquiry that is acquired using “the scientific
method”
Scientific Knowledge

The purpose of science is to create scientific

knowledge. Scientific knowledge refers to a
generalized body of laws and theories to
explain a phenomenon or behavior of
interest that are acquired using the scientific
method.
Laws are observed patterns of phenomena
or behaviors, while theories are systematic
explanations of the underlying phenomenon
or behavior.
For instance, in physics, the Newtonian Laws of
Motion describe what happens when an object is
in a state of rest or motion (Newton’s First Law),
what force is needed to move a stationary object
or stop a moving object (Newton’s Second Law),
and what happens when two objects collide
(Newton’s Third Law). Collectively, the three laws
constitute the basis of classical mechanics – a
theory of moving objects.
Characteristics of Science

The nine main characteristics of science are

as follows: 1. Objectivity 2. Verifiability 3.
Ethical Neutrality 4. Systematic Exploration
5. Reliability 6. Precision 7. Accuracy 8.
Abstractness 9. Predictability.
Characteristics of Science
Objectivity:
Scientific knowledge is objective. Objectivity simple means
the ability to see and accept facts as they are, not as one
might wish them to be. To be objective, one has to guard
against his own biases, beliefs, wishes, values and
preferences. Objectivity demands that one must set aside
all sorts of the subjective considerations and prejudices.
2. Verifiability:
Science rests upon sense data, i.e., data gathered through
our senses—eye, ear, nose, tongue and touch. Scientific
knowledge is based on verifiable evidence (concrete factual
observations) so that other observers can observe, weigh
or measure the same phenomena and check out
observation for accuracy.
• Ethical Neutrality:
• Science is ethically neutral. It only seeks knowledge. How this
knowledge is to be used, is determined by societal values.
Knowledge can be put to differing uses. Knowledge about atomic
energy can be used to cure diseases or to wage atomic warfare.
• Ethical neutrality does not mean that the scientist has no values. It
here only means that he must not allow his values to distort the
design and conduct of his research. Thus, scientific knowledge is
value-neutral or value- free.
• 4. Systematic Exploration:
• A scientific research adopts a certain sequential procedure, an
organised plan or design of research for collecting and analysis of
facts about the problem under study. Generally, this plan includes a
few scientific steps—formulation of hypothesis, collection of facts,
analysis of facts (classification, coding and tabulation) and scientific
generalisation and predication.
• Reliability:Scientific knowledge must occur under the
prescribed circumstances not once but repeatedly. It is
reproducible under the circumstances stated anywhere
and anytime. Conclusions based on casual recollec­tions
are not very reliable.
• 6. Precision:
• Scientific knowledge is precise. “Every moment dies a
man; every moment one is born”, is good literature but
not science. To be a good science, it should be written
as: “In India, according to the 2001 census, every 10th
second, on the average, dies a man; every 4th second,
on the average, an infant is born.” Precision requires
giving exact number or measurement. Instead of saying
“most of the people are against love marriages,” a
scientific researcher says, “Ninety per cent people are
Accuracy:
Scientific knowledge is accurate. A physician, like a
common man, will not say that the patient has slight
temperature or having very high temperature but after
measuring with the help of thermometer, he will pronounce
that the patient is having 101.2 F temperature.
Accuracy simply means truth or correctness of a statement
or describing things in exact words as they are without
jumping to unwarranted conclusions.
8. Abstractness: Science proceeds on a plane of
abstraction. A general scientific principle is highly abstract.
It is not interested in giving a realistic picture.
 Predictability:
Scientists do not merely describe the phenomena
being studied, but also attempt to explain and
predict as well. It is typical of social sciences that
they have a far lower predictability compared to
natural sciences. The most obvious reasons are
the complexity of the subject matter and
inadequacy at control etc.
 Scientific Method
• Scientific method refers to a standardized set of
techniques for building scientific knowledge,
such as how to make valid observations, how to
interpret results, and how to generalize those
results. The scientific method allows researchers
to independently and impartially test preexisting
theories and prior findings, and subject them to
open debate, modifications, or enhancements.
The scientific method must satisfy four key
characteristics:
Logical: Scientific inferences must be based on
logical principles of reasoning.
Confirmable: Inferences derived must match with
observed evidence.
Repeatable: Other scientists should be able to
independently replicate or repeat a scientific study
and obtain similar, if not identical, results.
Scrutinizable: The procedures used and the
inferences derived must withstand critical
scrutiny (peer review) by other scientists.
A
Any branch of inquiry that does not allow the
scientific method to test its basic laws or theories
cannot be called “science.” For instance, theology
(the study of religion) is not science because
theological ideas (such as the presence of God)
cannot be tested by independent observers using
a logical, confirmable, repeatable, and
scrutinizable