Lesson 1.

3:
Types of Plant
Cells and
Tissue
Prepared by: Ma. Christine L. Velez
Learning Competencies:

1. Classify different plant cell

types and specify the function(s)

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of each.
2. Describe some cell
modifications that lead to
adaptation to carry out
specialized functions.

2
1. The cells in a plant are grouped
together into various tissues.

2. These tissues can be simple,

consisting of only one type of cell

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(parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma) or complex,
consisting of two or more cell
types (xylem and phloem).

3. Plant tissue can be divided into

two main groups, meristematic
tissue and permanent tissue.

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 Meristematic Tissue

1. Meristematic tissue is composed of a

small population of meristematic cells
which grow and divide to produce new
cells, but never mature themselves.

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2. All plant cells are derived by mitosis
from meristematic cells. The new cells
produced then develop into various cell
types. Plant growth only occurs at the
meristematic regions.
3. Meristematic cells have the following
characteristics:
(a) Small size
(b) Very thin primary wall 4
 (c) No central vacoule
(d) Dense cytoplasm
(e) The nucleus occupies a large part
of the cell
4. There are three types of meristems:

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(a) Apical meristems
(b) Lateral meristems
(c) Intercalary meristems

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 Apical Meristems
1. Apical meristems occur at the tips of
the roots and shoots. They are
responsible for the extension in length of
the plant body (primary growth).
2. The shoot apical meristem or shoot

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apex also plays a role in organogenesis,
the formation of new leaves and axillary
buds in specific spatial patterns. In
contrast, the root apical meristem or
root apex is not involved in
organogenesis.
3. The apical meristem can be divided
into three parts:

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 (a) Protoderm - gives rise to the
epidermis, the outer protective layer of
the plant.

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(b) Procambium - gives rise to the
primary vascular tissue.

(c) Ground meristem - gives rise to

ground tissue

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1. In addition to primary growth, woody
plants also have secondary growth. Plant
increase in girth or diameter by
secondary growth.
2. The increase in girth, which occurs in
areas that are no longer elongating, is due to
cell divisions that take place in the lateral

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meristems which extend along the entire
length of the stems and roots except at the
tips.
3. Lateral meristems, also known as
cambium, consist of two types.
(a) Vascular cambium - located
between the xylem and phloem and give rise
to secondary xylem and phloem.
8
 (b) Cork cambium - located outside the phloem and gives rise to the cork
layer which consists of suberized cells (cells having cell walls containing a
substance called suberin)
Intercalary meristems
1. Intercalary meristems can be found
only in monocotyledons (particularly
grass). They occur between mature tissue

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sections near the stem internodes or leaf
attachments.
2. For example, intercalary meristems at
the nodes of bamboo allow rapid stem
elongation, while those at the base of
grass leaf blades help regenerate damaged
leaves.

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 Permanent Tissue
Take Note

Dermal tissue cover and protect 1. Permanent tissues are formed by the differentiation of
surfaces. Ground tissues make
up the bulk of the plant body.
meristematic cells, which become specialized to perform
Vascular tissues distribute specific functions like protection, support, storage and
water, dissolved minerals and
the products of photosynthesis.
transport of food and water.

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2. Permanent tissues can be divided into three types:
(a) Dermal tissues
(b) Ground tissues
(c) Vascular tissues
Dermal Tissues
1. Dermal tissue consist of the epidermis and periderm.
2. The epidermis is a single layer of closely packed cells.
(a) The function of the epidermis is to cover and protect the plants. 10
 (b) It secretes cuticle, a coating that helps the plant to retain water.

3. The epiderm, also called bark, replaces the epidermis in plants that undergo
secondary growth.
(a) The periderm consists of cork cells and protects the plant, prevents excessive
water loss and provides insulation for the plant.

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(b) Pores called lenticels allow gaseous exchange to occur through the bark.
(c) Cork tissue is composed of dead cells in which the cell walls are impregnated
with a waxy material called suberin.

4. A number of specialized cells occur in the epidermis, including guard cells

(which open and close the stomata), trichomes (hair-like projections of the
epidermis) and root hairs (extensions of individual epidermal cells of the roots).

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Ground tissue
Ground tissue comprise parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma
1. Parenchyma is the tissue that forms most of the
packing tissue in plants. Many plant soft tissues

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such as pith, cortex and mesophyll are
parenchyma. The horizontal rays in wood also
consist of parenchyma.

2. Parenchyma cells are usually described as

typical plant cells because they are not very
specialized.

3. Parenchyma cells have the following

characteristics:
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 (a) They have primary cell walls that are thin, flexible and rich in pectin.
(b) Their shape is isodiametric (many-sided).
(c) They have large central vacuole which allows the cell to store and regulate
ions, waste products and water.
(d) The cells are loosely packed and consequently, intercellular spaces are

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abundant. Aerenchyma, a tissue found in some aquatic plants, consists of
specialized parenchyma cells and has large intercellular spaces and is involved in
gaseous exchange.
(e) Parenchyma cells are living cells and may remain meristematic at maturity,
that is, capable of cell division.
4. Functions of Parenchyma tissue
(a) Manufacture food for the plant through photosynthesis. Most of the
chloroplast-containing cells of the leaf are specialized parenchyma cells which form
a tissue known as chlorenchyma. 13
 (b) Parenchyma cells in potato tubers and in the cotyledons of legumes stored
food such as starch, proteins, fats, and oils.
(c) Most parenchyma cells have the ability to differentiate into other cell types
during repair and replacement of damaged organs.

Collenchyma

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1. Collenchyma cells occur in groups just beneath
the epidermis and are commonly found in leaves,
petioles (leaf stalks) and elongating stems.
2. Collenchyma cells bear a strong resemblance to
parenchyma cells. However, they have some
distinguishing characteristics.
(a) Like parenchyma cells, they have primary cell walls which are rich in pectin.
However, the cell wall is unevenly thickened, especially at the corners. These
thickened cells walls provide mechanical support but remain slightly flexible and 14

fully permeable to water and other substances because they do not contain lignin.
 (b) The cells are polygonal and elongated.
(c) They tend to be closely packed with few intercellular spaces.
(d) Collenchyma cells remain alive for most of their functional exsitence.

Sclerenchyma

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1. Sclerenchyma cells also have a support function
in plants but unlike collenchyma cells, they have
thick secondary walls usually strengthened by
lignin and are much more rigid. Lignin is a strong
substance which is impermeable to water.
2. Sclerenchyma cells are dead and do not have
protoplast.
3. Sclerenchyma tissues occur in regions of the
plant that have stopped growing in length. 15
4. There are two types of sclerenchyma cells called fibers and sclereids.
5. (a) Fibers are needle-shaped with poisoned tips, thick walls and small lumen.
(b) Secondary cell walls are impregnated with lignin.
(c) Simple pits are present.
(d) Fibers often occur in bundles and are abundant in the vascular tissue of

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angiosperms (flowering plants).
6. (a) Sclereids or stone cells are variable in shape and are often branched.
(b) The cell walls are thick, hard and lignified, and the lumen is very small.
(c) Simple pits in the thickened cell walls connect adjacent cells.
(d) Sclereids may occur singly or in group in ground tissues throughout the plant.
They are commonly found in fruits and seeds.
7. Functions of sclerenchyma cells
(a) Support and strengthen tissues in plant structures which are no longer
growing. 16
 (b) Fibers provide support. Starch granules are also stored in young, living fibers.
(c) Sclereids provide protection. For example, sclereids make seed coats and the
shells of nuts hard.

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17
Lesson 1.4:
Types of
Animal Cells
and Tissue
Learning Competencies:

1. Classify different cell types and

specify the function(s) of each.

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2. Describe some modification
that lead to adoptation to carry
out specificialized functions.

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1. In animals, organ are composed
from different combinations of four
basic tissue types:
(a) Epithelial tissues that form
lining,coverings and glands.
(b) Nervous tissue for relaying

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messages.
(c) Muscle tissue for movement and
contaction.
(d) Connective tissue for transport
and support.
2. Classification of tissues depends on their structure and origin. Each type of tissue
is composed of cells with characteristic sizes, shapes and arrangements and is
specialized to perform a specific function or group of functions.
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 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

1. Epithelial tissues are widespread

throught the body. They form the covering
of all body surfaces, line body cavities
and hollow organs and are the major
tissue in glands. The epithelium (plural,

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epithelia) that forms the inner lining of
blood and lymph vessels is called
endothelium.
2. The epithelium has the following
characteristics:
(a) It consist of closely packed, flat cells with very little intercellular spaces and
only a small amount of intercellular substance
(b) The tissue does not contain blood vessels. Exchange of nutrients and wastes
occurs by diffusion through neighboring connective tissues. 21
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

(c) The free surface of the epithelium is

exposed to the outside of the body or to
an internal body cavity. The basal surface
rests on a thin layer called the basement
membrane (or basal lamina) which

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forms between the epithelial and
connective tissue. The basement
membrane provides structural support
for the epithelium and also binds it to
neighboring strcuctures.

(d) Epithelial cells are attached to one another by intercellular junctions. There are
several types of cell junctions: adhering junctions, tight junctions and gap junctions.
(i) Adhering junction - provides mechanical stability by anchoring the
cytoskeleton of one cell to that of another cell. 22
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

(ii) Tight junction - forms a

continuous band around each cell to
prevent leaking between adjoining cells.
(iii) Gap junction - provides direct

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intercytoplasmic communication between
joined cells.
3. Epithelial tissue can be divided into the
following groups.
(a) Simple epithelium - epithelium that
is only one cell thick
(b) Stratified epithelium (compound epithelium) - epithelium that is two or
more cell thick.
(c) Pseudostratified epithelium - epithelium that is composed of single layer of 23
cells of different sizes, giving the appearance of being multilayered.
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

4. Simple epithelial tissues can be subdivided according to the shape of their cells.
Three common cell shapes are:
(a) Squamous - flattened or scale-like cells
(b) Cubodial - square or cube-shaped

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(c) Columnar - tall and column-shaped
5. Squamous epithelium
(a) Consist of a single, very thin layer of
flattened cells. When viewed from the tissue
surface, the cells are polygonal in shape.
(b) Squamous cells tend to have a
flattened nucleus located at the center of
the cell.
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 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

(c) The thin and flat shape of this epithelium allows substances to diffuse through
it.
(d) This epithelium forms the lining of cavities such as the mouth, glomerulus of
the kidney, blood vessels and alveoli of the lungs and and make up the outer layers

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of the skin.
6. Cuboidal epithelium
(a) Cuboidal cells are roughly square or cuboidal in shape.
(b) Each cell has a spherical nucleus in the center
(c) The cuboidal epithelium is commonly found in glands such as the thyroid gland
and salivary gland, as well as in the ducts of glands such as the ducts of sweat glands,
and in the lining of kidney tubules. They also constitute the germinal epithelium
which produces the egg cells in the female ovaries and the sperm cells in the male
testes. 25
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

(ii) Non-ciliated columnar epithelia line the stomach and intestine. The
columnar cell membrane is modified to form a microvilli brush border which
increases the surface for absorption.
8. Epithelial tissues lining the cavities and
passageways of the body typically have
specialized mucus-secreting cells called goblet
cells. Mucus contains a substance called mucin
which chemically destroys pathogens. The
mucus lubricates the cell surfaces and
provides protection and facilitates movement
of the materials.

9. Where the body lining has to withstand wear and tear, the epithelium is composed
of several layers of cells and is called stratified epithelium. Stratified epithelia are
named after the shape of the outermost cell layer. Types of stratefied epithelia are: 26
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

(a) Stratified squamous epithelium

(b) Stratified cubodial epithelium
(c) Stratified columnar epithelium
(d) Transitional epithelium
10. Stratified squamous epithelia consist of flattened cells surface overlying
multiple layers of cells. Stratified squamous epithelia usually have a protective
function.
(a) The outer layer may be keratinized to provide protection against abrasion
and desiccation. This epithelium can be found on dry surfaces such as the skin.
(b) The outer layer is non-keratinized on wet, mucous surfaces such as the
cornea of the eye or the lining of the upper gastrointestinal tract.
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 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

11. Stratified cubodial and stratified columnar epithelia are not common.
(a) The stratified cubodial epithelium is found in sweat gland ducts. Usually,
there are only two layers of cells.

(b) The stratified columnar

epithelium is found only in the
largest ducts of the salivary
glands. The basal layer consists of
cubodial cells and the layer nearest
the surface includes columnar cells.

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 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

12. The transitional epithelium is found only in the urinary passages (pelvis,
ureters, urinary bladder and part of the urethra). The name ‘transitional’ derives
from the tissue’s ability to change its shape from cubodial to squamous when
stretched.
(a) In the relaxed state, the
epithelium appears to be 4 to 5 cells
thick and the cells are cubodial.
(b) In the stretched state, the
epithelium appears to be 2 to 3 cells
thick and the cells are flattened
(squamous).

29
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

13. The pseudostratified columnar epithelium is composed of one layer cells and
is, therefore, a simple epithelium. It is called pseudostratified due to the differing
heights of the cells and the nuclei whin the cells, making the epithelium look
multilayered (stratified).
(a) Not all cells extend all the way
to the lumen, but all the cells are
attached to the basement
membrane.
(b) The surface may have cilia.
(c) This epithelium can be found
lining the trachea and bronchus.

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 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

14. Glandular epithelia form glands. Glands secrete substances such as enzymes,
hormones, milk, mucus, sweat, wax and saliva and are classified as endocrine or
exocrine.

(a) Endocrine glands are ducless

glands and therefore their
secretions are secreted into the
bloodstream. Endocrine glands
secrete hormones and examples of
these glands include the adrenal
glands and pituitary gland.

(b) Exocrine glands secrete substance into a body cavity or to the outside of the
body through ducts. Examples are mammary glands, sweat glands and sebaceous
(oil) glands. 31
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

15. Functions of epithelial tissues

(a) Protection
The epithelium of the skin protects underlying tissue from mechanical injury and
invading pathogens, and prevent excessive loss of water.
(b) Secretion
Glandular epithelial tissues secrete specific chemical substances such as hormone,
enzymes and lubricating fluid.
(c) Absorption
Numerous microvilli on the epithelial surfaces in the intestine allow greater food
absorption.

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 EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND CELLS

15. Functions of epithelial tissues

(d) Excretion
Epithelial tissue in the kidney excrete waste products and reabsorb needed materials.
(e) Diffusion
Simple epithelia promote the diffusion of gases, liquids, and nutrients because they
form only a thin layer. This type of epithelium lines blood vessels and the alveoli in
the lungs.
(f) Sensory reception
Specialized epithelial tissues containing sensory nerve endings are found in the skin,
eyes, ears, nose and tongue. .

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 NERVOUS TISSUE AND CELLS

1. Nervous tissue is found in the brain,

spinal cord and nerves. It is responsible
for coordinating and controlling many body
activities such as stimulating muscle
contraction, detecting changes in the
environment and reasoning.

2. The basic unit of the nervous system is

the neuron. It is highly specialized cell
which means that if a neuron is destroyed,
it cannot be replaced because it does not
undergo mitosis.

34
 NERVOUS TISSUE AND CELLS

3. There are three tyes of neurons base on

the direction in which information is sent.
(a) Sensory (or afferent) neuron -
carries impulses from sensory receptors to
the central nervous system (CNS)
(b) Motor (or efferent) neuron - carries
impulses from the CNS to the effectors, that
is, muscle and glands.
(c) Interneuron (or association neuron) -
connects one neuron with another. For
example, in many reflex arcs, interneurons
connect the sensory neurons with the motor
neurons. 35
 NERVOUS TISSUE AND CELLS

4. Regardless of type, every neuron has three

basic parts: cell body (soma), dendrites and
a single axon.
5. The cell body is the largest part of the
neuron.
(a) It contains the nucleus with a
prominent nucleolus and other organelles
which are responsible in maintaining the cell.
(b) The rough endoplasmic reticulum secretes proteins known as Nissl granules
which are visible in the cytoplasm.
(c) The Golgi apparatus produces secretory products, especially chemical substance
called neurotransmitters. 36
 NERVOUS TISSUE AND CELLS

(d) There are large number of

mitochondria to provide the large amount of
energy required by the neuron.
(e) The cell body integrates all the
information arriving at the dendrites.
6. Dendrites and axons are cytoplasmic
extensions or processes that project from the
cell body. They are sometimes referred to as
fibers.
(a) Dendrites are usually, but not always, short and branching, which increases their
surface area for receiving signals from other neurons.
(b) Each neuron has a single axon leaving the cell body. At the other end of the
axon, the axon terminals transmit the impulse across a synapse ( the gap between 37

the axon terminal and the receiving cell).

 NERVOUS TISSUE AND CELLS
Take Note

The neuron receives nerve 7. Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit
impulses through its dendrites.
It then sends the nerve impulses impulses but instead support the activities of the neurons.
through its axon to the axon These are the glial cells or neuroglia.
terminals where
neurotransmitters are released
to stimulate other neurons. 8. Two of the most important kinds of neuroglia in
vertebrates are Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes which
produce myelin sheaths that surround the axons of many
neurons.
(a) Oligodendrocytes are found in the central nervous system while Schwann cells
are found in the peripheral nervous system.
(b) Axons that have myelin sheaths are said to be myelinated and those that do not
are unmyelinated.
(c) The functions of the myelin sheath are:
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 NERVOUS TISSUE AND CELLS

(i) Allowing nutrients and waste products to enter and leaves the neuron.
(ii) Allowing nerve impulses to jump from node to node along the axon through
the process of depolarization and repolarization of the nerve membrane.
9. Functions of the nervous system
(a) To collect information about the external and internal environment.
(b) To coordinate the information gathered.
(c) To act on the information gathered.

39
 SMOOTH MUSCLE

1. Smooth muscle (also known as visceral

muscle) does not have cross striations.
2. The muscle tissue is made up of spindle-
shape muscle fibers. These fibers are
pointed at their ends and each fiber has a
single, large oval nucleus. Smooth muscle
fibers interlace to form sheets or layers of
muscle tissue.
3. Smooth muscle is an involuntary tissue since it is not consciously controlled by the
brain. It contracts more slowly than skeletal muscle, but the contraction can be
continued for a longer period of time.
4. Smooth muscle forms the muscle layers in the walls of hollow organs such as the
lower part of the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bladder and uterus. It also forms
the walls of blood vessels and the ducts of various glands. 40
 SMOOTH MUSCLE

5. Functions of smooth muscle

(a) Smooth muscle produces slow and sustained contractions such as the
contractions in the walls of the stomach and intestines.
(b) The muscles of the arteries contract and relax to regulate blood pressure and
blood flow.

41
 SKELETAL MUSCLE

1. Skeletal muscle is the most

abundant tissue in the vertebrate
body (40-50% of the body mass).
These muscles are attached to
various parts of the skeleton, hence
the name skeletal muscles.
2. Skeletal muscles are striated and
control voluntary movements which
can be consciously controlled.
3. (a) Skeletal muscle fibers are long and cylindrical in shape, and are unbranched.
(b) Each fiber is multinucleate (possessing many nuclei) and contain many
mitochondria. The nuclei are oval in shape and, together with the mitochondria, are
located at the sides of the cell.
42
 SKELETAL MUSCLE

(c) Each fiber is enclosed by a

plasma membrane called the
sarcolemma which surrounds the
cytoplasm known as sarcoplasm.
(d) The sarcoplasm contains
hundreds or even thousands of
myofibrils which lie parallel to one
another. The myofibrils are which lie
parallel to one another. The myofibrils
are made up of the myofilaments,
myosin (thick filaments) and actin
(thin filaments).
The striations in skeletal muscle are
due to the arrangement of the actin
and myosin filaments.
43
 SKELETAL MUSCLE

(e) The individual contractile units are

called sacromeres. A myofibril consist of
many sacromeres arranged end to end.
4. Skeletal muscles have an alternating
pattern of dark and light bands, called A
bands and I bands respectively.
(a) The I band is divided by a dense zone
called the Z line, to which the thin filaments
of the I band are attached.
(b) The H zone consists of the parts of
the thick filaments where they do not
overlap with the thin filaments.

44
 SKELETAL MUSCLE

5. Functions of skeletal muscles

(a) Produce the coordinated movements of the skeleton.
(b) Maintain body posture and body position.
(c) The heat released from the activity of the skeletal muscle helps maintain the
body temperature.

45
 CARDIAC MUSCLE

1. Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of

the heart.

2. The cardiac muscle fiber, like the skeletal

muscle fiber, exhibits cross-striations because
it also has actin and myosin filaments arranged
into sacromeres. However, it contains only one
or two nuclei which are centrally located. Like
smooth miscle, it is involuntary.

3. The fibers are elongated, cylindrical, and

branch and rejoin to form complex networks.
The fibers are connected to one another by
intercalary discs (gap junctions)
46
 CARDIAC MUSCLE

4. The cardiac muscle is myogenic which

means that contraction is initiated by the
muscle itself and not by outside stimulus.

5. Functions of cardiac muscle

It causes contraction of the atria and
ventricles of the heart. As a result, the
rhythmic beating of the heart circulates blood
throughout the whole body.

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 COMPARISON BETWEEN SMOOTH, SKELETAL AND CARDIAC MUSCLES
Smooth muscle Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle
Location Found in the walls of Attached to the Found in the walls of
the stomach, skeleton the heart
intestines, etc.
Type of control Involuntary muscle Voluntary muscle Involuntary muscle
Fiber shape Muscle fiber is Muscle fiber is Muscle fiber is
elongated and elongated and elongated, cylindrical,
spindle-shaped with cylindrical with blunt branching out and
pointed ends ends rejoining
Striations Not striated Striated muscle Striated muscle
Number and position One nucleus per fiber; Many nuclei per fiber; One or two nuclei per
of nuclei nucleus is centrally nucleus is fiber; nucleus is
located peripherally located centrally located
Speed of contraction Slowest Fastest Intermediate; speed of
contraction varies
48
 CONNECTIVE TISSUES AND CELLS

1. Functions of connective tissues

(a) Bind structures together
(b) Form a framework and support
for organs and the body as a whole
(c) Store fat
(d) Transport substances
(e) Protect against disease
(f ) Help repair damaged tissues

2. Connective tissues are characterized by an abundance of extracellular matrix

with relatively few cells.
49
 CONNECTIVE TISSUES AND CELLS

(a) The cells are responsible for

secreting the matrix

(b) The matrix is a non-living

material which may be liquid, semi-
solid or solid, depending on the type
of the connective tissue. Connective
and supporting fibers such as collagen
fibers and elastic fibers may be
embedded in the matrix to provide
additional strength to the connective
tissue.

3. Cartilage, bone and blood are connective tissues.

50
 BONE

1. Bone is a connective tissue. The matrix is

composed of inorganic salts, mainly calcium,
deposited around collagen fibers.
2. There are two types of bone: compact bone
and spongy bone. The name reflect in their
density.
(a) Compact bone is very hard and dense. It
does not contain spaces visible to the naked eye.

51
 BONE

(b) Spongy bone is composed of

lattice or network of branching bone
spicules or trabeculae. The spaces
between the bone spicules contain
bone marrow.
3. Bones may be divided into long
bones (for example, humerus and
femur), flat bones (membrane
bones) and irregular bones (such
as the vertebrae). All these types of
bones are composed of both spongy
and compact bones.
4. Mammalian bone consist of repeating units called osteons or Harversian systems.
(a) Small canals called Haversian canals are surrounded by concentric layers of 52

bone matix called lamellae and rings of bone-forming cells called osteoblasts.
 BONE

(b) These canals are interconnected with

one another via Volkmann’s canal and contain
a blood vessel, an nerve and a lymphatic vessel.
5. Osteoblasts are living cells. Once they are
completely surrounded by the hard bone
matrix, they are called osteocytes.
(a) The osteocytes are embedded in fluid-
filled cavities called lacunae (singular, lacuna)
which occur at regular intervals in the
concentric layers of bone tissue.
(b) Osteocytes are in contact with each other
and the Harvesian canals via a network of
small canals known as canaliculi. This
network facilitates the exchange of nutrients 53

and metabolic wastes.

 BONE

6. Functions of bones
(a) Support
The skeleton, which consists mainly of bone
tissues , forms a supportive framework that
gives shape and rigidity to the body.
(b) Locomotion
Bones provide sites of attachement for
voluntary muscles which are necessary for
locomotion. The muscles are attached to the
bones through tendons.
(c) Protection
Bones provide protection for the soft, vital organs of the body. For example, the ribs
protect the heart and lungs and the skull protects the brain. 54
 BONE

(d) Formation of blood cells

Red blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow which is located in the spongy
tissue at the ends of long bones.
(e) Homeostasis
The main substances stored in bones are calcium and phosphate. Bones have several
metabolic functions especially in calcium homeostasis in which they help to maintain
a constant level of calcium in the blood.

55
 CARTILAGE

1. Cartilage is a connetive tissue that provides

both strength and flexibility. It is usually fond
in close association with bone.
2. It is mainly found in the form of hyaline
cartilage (hyalos means ‘glass’ in Greek),
which is so named because of its smooth,
glassy and bluish-white appearance.
3. The skeletons of sharks and human
embryos are composed of cartilage. Cartilage
forms the precursor for the vertebrates
skeleton in the embryo, which is then replaced
by bone as the embryo grows.
4. Cartilage provides flexible support for certain structures in adult humans including
the nose, trachea, ears, the connections between the ribs and breastbone and also 56

the end bones where they form joints.

 CARTILAGE
5. The matrix of the cartilage is a
fibrous tissue composed of closely
packed collagenous fibers in a
rubbery gelatinous substance called
chondrin and chondroitin surface.
6. Cartilage is covered by a dense
fibrous membrane called the
perichondrium. The
perichondrium is responsible for
the growth and maintenance of the
cartilage.
(a) Cells called chondroblasts are found in the chondrogenic (inner) layer of
perichondrium. Chondroblasts that become embedded in the matrix are called
chondrocytes.
57
 CARTILAGE
(b) Chondrocytes are located in spaces called lacunae,
surrounded by extracellular matrix. The chondrocytes
secrete the matrix that make up the ground substance of
the cartilage.
7. There are no nerves or blood vessels n cartilage.
Cartilage receives oxygen and nutrients by diffusion
from surroundings blood vessels.
8. Functions of cartilage
(a) Reduces friction at joints
The smooth surface of hyaline cartilage provides a
sliding are which reduces friction, thus facilitating bone
movement.
(b) Movement
Hyaline cartilage joins bone firmly together in a way that allows a certain amount of 58

movement between them.

 CARTILAGE
(c) Support
The cartilaginous rings in the windpipes (trachea and bronchi) help to keep them
open.
(d) Growth
Hyaline cartilage is responsible for the longitudinal growth of bone in the neck regions
of the long bones.

59
 BLOOD
1. Blood is a connective tissue
consisting of cells suspended in a fluid
(the blood plasma).
2. The thre main types of blood cells
(a) erythrocytes (red blood cells)
(b) leucocytes (white blood cells)
(c) thrombocytes (platelets)
3. Blood plasma
(a) Plasma makes up 50-60% of the
total blood volume.
(b) It is yellowish, straw-colored liquid consisting of more than 90% water.
The remaining 10% of the plasma consists of dissolved substances such as organic
substances, inorganic salts, dissolved gases, plasma proteins (fibrinogen, albumin 60

and globulin) and antibodies.

 BLOOD
(c) Plasma is the medium of
transport for the blood cells and other
substances throughout the body.
4. Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
(a) Erythrocytes are the most
numerous type of blood cell.
(b) They are a biconcave disc shape in which the edge of the disc is thicker than
the center.
(c) They are small in size (about 7 in diameter) and do not have a nucleus,
mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum when mature.
(d) Erythrocytes are reddish in color due to their high content of the iron-protein
complex called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin allows erythrocytes to bind oxygen.
(e) The average lifespan of mature red blood cells is about 120 days.
61
 BLOOD
5. Leucocyte (white blood cell)
(a) Leucocytes are much fewer in
number than erythrocytes with a ratio
of about 1 leucocytes for every 600 –
700 erythrocytes.
(b) Leukocytes are divided into two
groups:
(i) Granulocytes contain
cytoplasmic granules. Granulocytes are
further classified into neutrophils,
eosinophils and basophils.
(ii) Agranulocytes do not have granules. Monocytes and lymphocytes are
agranulocytes
62
 Types of leucocytes Lifespan Size and structure Function
(a) Granulocytes 6 hours to a few days (in the • 10-12 diameter Removes foreign cells,
(i) Neutrophil spleen and other tissues) • Nucleus has 2-5 lobes toxins and viruses by
(50-70% of leucocytes connected by thin phagocytosis.
chromatin threads
• Cytoplasm contains
granules

(ii) Eosinophil 8-12 days • 12-17 diameter Defends against allergic

(1.5% of leucocytes) • Nucleus with two lobes conditions and parasitic
• Cytoplasm contains large infections. The granules
granules contain digestive enzymes
that can kill the larvae of
parasitic worms.

(iii) Basophil A few hours to a few days • 10-12 diameter Responds to specific
(0.5% of leucocytes) • Large, irregular shaped allergens by releasing its
nucleus granular contents
• Cytoplasm contains large containing histamine and
granules other vasodilating agents.
63
 Types of leucocytes Lifespan Size and structure Function
(b) Granulocytes Hours to days • 14-20 diameter Defends the body against
(i) Monocyte • Nucleus of various shapes viruses and bacteria.
from ovoid to horseshoe Monocytes leave the
shape bloodstream and become
macrophages or dendritic
cells which are phagocytic.

(ii) Lymphocyte Weeks to years • 8-10 diameter Defends against pathogenic

• Nucleus is round and large microorganisms such as
and occupies most of the viruses, bacteria, fungi and
cell . protozoa by producing
• Divided into small, antibodies.
medium and large
lymphocytes.

64
 BLOOD
6. Thrombocytes (platelet)
(a) Platelets are the small
cytoplasmic pragments of a larger cell
called megakaryocyte.
(b) Platelets are important for the
clotting of blood.
(c) Platelets are small 2-5 in
diameter), have no nucleus and are
ovoid-shaped.
(d) The average lifespan of a
platelet is 8-12 days.

65
 BLOOD
7. Functions of blood
(a) Transport oxygen and nutrients to body cells
(b) Transport waste products from body cells to the kidneys to be excreted.
(c) Transport hormones from the site of synthesis to the target organs.
(d) Helps regulate body temperature and acid-base balance of bodily fluids.
(e) The white bloods cells protect the body against harmful pathogens.

66
67
68
 TISSUE, ORGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEMS
1. Similar cells are grouped together to form tissues that perform a specific functions.
2. An organ is a group of different tissues working together to perform a specific
function.
(a) Examples of human organs are liver, heart, kidney and skin.
(b) Examples of plant organs are root, stem, leaf and flower.
3. Organs systems are composed of two or more different organs that work together
to perform a common function.
(a) Examples of the organ systems in the human body are the reproductive
system, skeletal system, muscular system and nervous system.
(b) The two main organ systems in vascular plants are the root system and the
shoot system.
4. All the organ systems in an organism work together to maintain a constant 69
environment to ensure the survival of the organism.
Thank
You