CELL1.

1
Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells
Prepared by: Ma. Christine L. Velez
 Introduction
1. The cell is the smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of independent
functioning. It consists of a nucleus cytoplasm and various organelles surrounded by a
selectively permeable membrane.

2. All organisms are composed of cells.

3. Unicellular organisms consist of a single cell. Examples are bacteria and Amoeba
proteus, which is a type of protozoa.

4. Multicellular organisms are composed of many cells. Fungi, plants and animals are
multicellular organisms.
5. Cells vary considerably in size ranging from 0.5 µm to 100 µm in length. Cells also have
Standards
many different shapes which are typically suited to the cell’s functions.

6. All cells carry out many of the same basic functions and have the same basic structural features.

7. A typical eukaryotic cell has at least four major structural features:

a. A plasma membrane (cell membrane) to define its boundary and retain its contents,
b. A nucleus to house the DNA that directs cellular activities,
c. Membrane-bound organelles in which various cellular functions are localized, and
d. Cytosol, the semi-fluid substance in which all the organelles are suspended.
Keywords
LEARNING COMPETENCIES

• Explain the postulates of cell theory.

• Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing features.

Cell Theory
1. The cell theory states that all organisms are made up of similar units of organisms called cells. This theory was formulated in 1839 by
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann and has remained as the foundation of modern biology.
2. The cell theory states that:
a. All known living things are made up of cells.
b. A cell is the structural and functional unit of living things.
c. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. Spontaneous
generation does not occur.
d. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on to new
3. What does a somatic cell look like?
cells during cell division.

Matthias Schleiden Theodor Schwann

 PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Cells can be divided into two types based on their

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
first described cells when he
structure:
used a microscope he had a. Prokaryotic cells (pro, before; karyon nucleus)
built to examine a thin slice
of cork, a non-living tissue
found in the bark of certain
trees. He called the
compartments in the cork
cellulae (Latin for small
rooms’) or cells because the
tissue reminded him of the
small rooms monks lived in.
What Hooke saw were not
actually living cells but walls
of dead cork cells.
TAKE NOTE

2. Only bacteria and archaebacteria are prokaryotic cells. B. Eukaryotic cells (eu, trur; karyon nucleus)
(a) These cells have a single compartment enclosed by a cell
membrane.
(b) They lack nuclei; and all cell components – DNA, RNA, ribosomes
and other molecules – are not separated from each other in the cell’s
interior
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
4. Plant vs. Somatic cell: Is there any difference?
3. Eukaryotic cells make up protist (unicellular organisms which include protozoa), fungi, plants and animals. The distinguishing
characteristic of eukaryotic cells is compartmentalization.

fungi plants
animals
Protozoa
(a) Eukaryotic cells contain numerous membrane-bound organelles, within
which multiple biochemical processes can occur simultaneously and
independently.
(b) The DNA in eukaryotic cells is enclosed in a special organelle called the
nucleus.
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Activity – Every cell is unique
4. Despite their differences, both cell types have similarities:
(a) Both cells are enclosed by plasma membranes and have cytoplasm and ribosomes.
(b) Both have DNA as genetic material.
(c) They perform most of the same types of functions with similar basic mechanisms.

5. The differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are summarized in Table 1.1.

6Table 1.1 Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell
Size is typically 0.2-2.0 µm in diameter
No membrane-bound organelles
No nucleus or nucleoli. The DNA region is called the
nucleoid
Usually has one circular chromosome composed of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) not associated with
histone proteins
Eukaryotic cell
Size is typically 10-100 µm in diameter
Have membrane-bound organelles. Example include
Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and chloroplast
True nucleus bounded by a double membrane and
containing one or more nucleoli
Has one or more paired, linear chromosomes
composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) associated
with histone proteins
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

6Table 1.1 Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell
Some bacteria contain plasmids (small loops of
DNA that are separate from the chromosomal
DNA)
Many prokaryotes have flagella. Each flagellum is
composed of a single fiber. Prokaryotes do not
have cilia
Ribosomes are composed of a 50S subunit and a
30S subunit forming a 70S ribosome
Plasma membrane usually lacks sterols
Bacteria have cell walls composed of
peptidoglycan while archaebacteria lack
peptidoglycan in their cell walls
Cell divides by binary fission
Electron transport system is located in the folds of Electron transport system is located in the inner
the plasma membrane known as mesosomes
Eukaryotic cell
No plasmids
May have flagella or cilia. The flagella or cilia are
complex, consisting of multiple microtubules
Ribosome are composed of 60S subunit and 40S
subunit forming an 80S ribosome
Plasma membrane contain sterols
Plant cells, algae, and fungi have cell walls, usually
composed of cellulose or chitin. Animal cells and
protozoans lack cell walls
Cell divide by mitosis and/or meiosis
membrane of the mitochondria
Check Point 1.1

1. (a) Who developed the cell theory?

(b) What are the four basic principles of the cell theory?

2. What are the similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

3. Describe two major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

4. Draw and label the generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell as observed under the
electron microscope
 CELL 1.2
Structure and Functions:
Organelles
LEARNING COMPETENCIES

• Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles.

1. Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic cells.

2. There are many different types of animals and plant cells but all are variations of the primary cell type which can be considered as a
Cell
typicalTheory
or generalized cell.

ANIMAL CELLS
1. An animal cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane.
2. The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm in which is suspended the
membrane-bound nucleus and cell organelles.
3. Animal cells lack a cell wall. Due to the lack of a cell wall, the shape and
size of most animal cells are irregular.
4. The membrane-bound nucleus contains the genetic material (DNA) and is
bound by a double membrane.
5. Animal cells contain organelles, most of which are membrane-bound.
(a) Membrane-bound organelles: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosome, mitochondria
(b) Organelles which are not membrane-bound: ribosomes and centrioles
ANIMAL CELLS

6. Cell organelles carry out specific functions that are necessary for the normal functioning of the cell. These functions are many and varied,
ranging from hormone and enzyme production to providing energy for the cell.
7. Animal cells come in various sizes. The size of most animal cells range between 1 to 100 µm and are visible only with the help of
microscopes.
8. Animal cells contain glycogen granules as food storage.

PLANT CELLS
1. Plants cell are similar to animal cells. Both are eukaryotic and have similar cell
organelles.
2. However, plant cells have cell structures such as cell wall, plastids and large
vacuoles which are not found in animal cells.
(a) The cell wall is found outside the plasma membrane. The main component of
the cell wall is cellulose. The cell wall provides structural support and gives rigidity
to the plant cells.
(b) Chloroplasts are the most important plastids in plant cells. Their function is to
carry out photosynthesis in order to produce food for the plant.
(c) Other plastids called leucoplasts function as storage sites of plant products.
(d) Vacuoles are water-filled, membrane-bound organelles. The membrane of
vacuole is known as tonoplast. Mature plant cells often have a large central
vacuole.
PLANT CELLS
3. Generally, plant cells are larger than animal cells and have a regular shape.
4. Plant cells contains starch granules which serve as food storage.

Structure of membrane Examples Organelles effectively

compartmentalize a
Single membrane Golgi body, lysosome, cell’s activities,
improving efficiency
organelles smooth and rough and protecting cell
endoplasmic reticulum, contents from harsh
vesicle and vacoule chemicals. Organelles
enable cells to secrete
substances, derive
Double membrane Nucleus, mitochondrion energy from nutrients,
degrade debris and
organelles and plastids (chloroplast, reproduce.
amyliplast, chromoplast, TAKE NOTE
elaioplast and leucoplast)

Organelles without Ribosome, centriole

membrane
Differences between Animal and Plant Cells
Plant cell Animal cell
Has cellulose cell wall No cell wall
Has a large central vacuole containing cell No large central vacuole but may have
sap small vacuoles
Has chloroplasts No chloroplasts
Many plant cells have a box-like or Various shapes
rectangular shape
Nucleus often located at the side of the Nucleus is centrally located
cell due to the large central vacuole
No centrioles (except in lower plant Has a pair of centrioles
species)

Structure, Function and Distribution of Cell Organelles

Cytoplasm
1. Cytoplasm is a jellylike substance contained within the plasma membrane. It
is made up of two parts cytosol (cytoplasmic solution) and cell organelles
(organ of the cell).
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Cell Organelles
Cytoplasm
2. (a) Cytosol is the semi-fluid portion of the cytoplasm that remains after all
cell organelles and solids, such as food particles, are removed by centrifugation.
(b) A large portion of cytosol is actually water and soluble proteins. Other
substances common in cytosol are glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, oil
droplets and food granules.
3. Cell organelles carry out specific functions within the cell. All cell organelles,
apart from the nucleus, are considered to be a part of the cytoplasm.
4. Even though the nucleus is a type of cell organelle, it is generally not
considered as part of the cytoplasm. The nucleus is considered a discrete
cellular component due to its unique characteristics and important role in the
cell.
5. Organelles such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, plastids and Golgi body are membranous organelles, as they are
enclosed within membranes. Some of these internal membranes are extensively and elaborately arranged and they effectively partition the ceil
into several compartments.
6. Compartmentalization provides different local environments that facilitate the occurrence of complex metabolic reactions of even
incompatible processes, simultaneously and in the correct sequence within the same cell.
7. Other organelles, such as ribosomes and centrioles are non-membranous organelles.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Nucleus
1. The nucleus (plural, nuclei) is the largest and most prominent organelle within
the eukaryotic cell. There is one nucleus in each living cell except mammalian red
blood cells and mature sieve tube cells (in plants)which are without nuclei.
Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria and blue-green algae also do not have a distinct
nucleus.
2. The nucleus is usually spherical or oval in shape and averages 5 µm in diameter.
The nuclei of some cells such as that of white blood cells are multi-lobed.
3. The nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear enveloped, which consists of two
membranes perforated by nuclear pores. The diameter of a nuclear pore is about
20-50 nm. These pore control the exchange of materials between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm. The space between the two membranes of the nuclear enveloped
is called the perinuclear space and has a width of about 20 nm.
4. The nucleus contains chromatin, the form that chromosomes take up when the cell is not dividing. Chromatin contains DNA, the molecules of
inheritance which controls the activities of the cell.
Two forms of chromatin are visible.
(a) Euchromatin stains lightly and is thought to contain active DNA.
(b) Heterochromatin stains deeply and is thought to contain inactive DNA.
5. Nucleoplasm is the semi-fluid substance in the nucleus. The nucleus also contains one or more very prominent structures called nucleoli
(singular, nucleolus). The nucleolus appears as a dense mass of granules and fibers when observed through the electron microscope.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Nucleus
The nucleolus synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In addition, proteins imported from the cytoplasm are combined with the rRNA in the nucleolus
to form large and small ribosomal subunits. These ribosomal subunits then move into the nucleoplasm and exit the nucleus through the nuclear
pores to the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, the large and small subunits are assembled into ribosomes which take up positions on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum where they play a vital role for protein synthesis.
6. The nucleus is the information center of the cell. Its functions include the following.
(a) To carry the genetic material of a cell in the from of chromosomes.
(b) To act as a control center that directs all the activities of a cell by regulating protein and enzyme synthesis.
(c) To contain the nuclear DNA which carries the instructions for the synthesis of proteins.
(d) To assist in the production of ribosomes and RNA and its essential for cell division.
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Cell Organelles
Edoplasmic Reticulum
1. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive membranous network that
is denser in the interior region (endoplasmic) than in the exterior region
of the cytoplasm (ectoplasm). This organelle is found penetrating to
cytoplasm of all nucleated cells (eukaryotic cells) and is especially well
developed in growing cells.
2. (a) The ER consist of a netwrok of membranous tubules and flattened
sacs called cisternae (singular, cisterna)
(b) The ER membrane separates the internal compartment of the ER
called cisternal space, from the cytosol. The ER membrane, which is a
single unit membrane and is continuous with the nuclear envelope.
Therefore, the space between the two membranes of the nuclear
envelope is contiunuous with the cisternal space of the ER.
3. There are two distinct though connected, regions of ER that differ in
structure and function: rough ER (granular ER) and smooth ER
(agranular ER)
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Rough Edoplasmic Reticulum
1. Rough ER is named as such because the cytoplasmic surface of its cisternae appears rough
under the lectron microscope due to the ribosomes that stud it.
2. A ribosome is an organelle compose of rRNA (synthesized in the nucleolus) and ribosomal
proteins. It is the site of protein synthesis.
3. Rough ER collects protein synthesized by ribosomes attached at its surface, packages them in
inert from, stores them temporarily and transports them to the cell surface for secretion. Cells of
secretory glands like pancreas, salivary glands, pituitary gland and mammary glands which actively
synthesized and excrete proteins (insulin, digestive enzymes, hormones and milk protein,
respectively) are densepacked with rough ER.
4. The system of canals formed by the cisternal spaces of rough ER function as an intracellular
transport system that facilitates the movement of substances from one part of the cell to another.
5. When an enzyme is synthesized by a ribosome bound to the surface of rough ER, the growing
polypeptide chain is threaded into the cisternal space through a pore formed by a protein in the
ER membrane. As it enters the cisternal space, the new protein folds into its native conformation
and it is stored there temporarily.

6. In the rough ER, a short carbohydrate chain (an oligasaccharide) is added to the protein converting it to a glycoprotein (a secretory protein). The
carbohydrate is attached to the protein by speciallized molecules built into the ER membrane.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Rough Edoplasmic Reticulum
7. (a) Once the secretory proteins are formed, the molecules are ready for
export from the ER. The molecules are moved to a specialized region of the
rough ER called transitional ER. Here, they are packaged into tiny sacs called
transport vesicles.
(b) The vesicles then bud off from the ER membrane like bubbles. The
vesicles containing secretory proteins will now travel to the Golgi body for
further processing.
(c) From the Golgi body, transport vesicles containing the finished molecules
will make their way to the plasma membrane and release their contents from
the cell.
8. (a) Another function of rough ER is to manufacture more membrane for the
cell.
(b) Some of the proteins made by the ER ribosomes are inserted into the ER
membrane, as are membrane phospholipids made by the ER enzymes.
(c) As a result, the ER membrane enlarges, and some of it can be transferred
to other organelles as well as the plasma membrane through transport viscles.
Differences
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Distribution
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Cell Organelles
Smooth Edoplasmic Reticulum
1. The cytoplasmic surface of smooth ER lacks ribosomes. The cisternae of smooth ER is in the
form of interconnected tubes and not flattened sacs.
2. The smooth ER of various cells functions in diverse metabolic processes, including synthesis
and transport of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and detoxify drugs and poisons. Much
of its activity results from enzymes embedded in its membrane.
3. (a) Enzymes of smooth ER are important for the synthesis of lipids, including oils,
phospholipids and steroids. Cells that are active in lipid metabolism such as gut epithelium
cells, adrenal gland cells and cells in the testes and ovaries are rich in smooth ER.
(b) In the gut epithelium cells, smooth ER synthesizes lipids from fatty acids and glycerol.
These are then sent to the Golgi Body to be exported out of the cell.
(c) Cells in the testes and ovaries synthesize the steroid sex hormones, testosterone and
estrogen, respectively.
(d) Cells in the adrenal glands are involved in the synthesis of some steroid hormones.
4. Our liver cells also have larger amounts of smooth ER. Certain enzymes in the smooth ER of the liver help regulate the amount of sugar releases
from liver cells into the bloodstream. Other liver enzymes help break down drugs and other potentially harmful substances such as alcohol.
5. A specialized form of smooth ER, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, is the site of storage and release of calcium ions in muscle cells. When a nerve
signal stimulates a muscle cell, calcium ions leak from the smooth ER into the cytosol, thus triggering contraction of the cell.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Ribosome 1. Ribosomes are seen as solid spherical granules when observed through the electron
microscope. Each ribosome has a diameter of about 20-25 nm.
2. Each ribosome is an assembly to two ribosomal subunits: the large subunit and the small
subunit. Ribosomal subunits are synthesized in the nucleolus. These subunits then pass
through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm, where they can combine to form ribosomes.
Each ribosome consists of about 70 protein molecules and several ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
molecules.
3. (a) Ribosomes are found in two places in the cell.
(i) As bound ribosomes attached to the cytoplasmic surface of rough ER and the nuclear
envelope
(ii) As free ribosomes suspended freely in the cytosol
(b) Bound and free ribosomes are structurally identical and can alternate between the two
roles depending on the metabolic needs of the cell.

4. Ribosomes are the protein factories of a cell. Ribosomes synthesize protein molecules from amino acids, using genetic information carried by
mRNA molecules from the DNA in the nucleus.
5. The proteins synthesized in free ribosomes are released into the cytosol, where they perform their functions as enzymes or as structural proteins
for growth within the cell.
6. The proteins synthesized by ribosomes attached to rough ER pass into the cisternal space of the reticulum and are then transferred to the Golgi
body. They are ultimately secreted from the cell the form of enzymes or hormones.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Golgi Body 1. The Golgi body consists of a stack of flattened membranous sacs (cisternae).
Each Golgi stack in a mammalian cell can consist of 5-6 cisternae whereas those
in plant cells can consist of 20 or more.
2. The Golgi body is found in all eukaryotic cells. It is clearly seen in active
secretory cells such as nerve cells, pancreatic cells and cells of the root apex.
Most cells have a single Golgi body located near the nucleus. Root apex cells may
have several or a few hundred Golgi bodies within the cytoplasm.

3. The Golgi body acts as a warehouse and packaging factory for

macromolecules. It receives, stores, modifies, finishes, sorts and packages
secretory proteins arriving from rough ER prior to sending them to other
destinations.
4. (a) Products of ER are modified during their transit from the cis pole to the
trans pole of the Golgi body. For example, various Golgi modify the
oligosaccharide portions of glycoproteins which were first added in rough ER.
(b) The Golgi enzymes remove some sugar monomers and substitute others,
producing a variety of oligosaccharides. In this way, the secretory proteins are
Take Note marked and then sorted into varies batches for different destinations.

The Golgi Body is named after (c) The molecules move from cisterna to cisterna within the Golgi body
the Italian biologist and through transport vesicles.
physician, Camillo Golgi
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Proteins and lipds are transported
through the Golgi body by means of
vesicles containing them, budding off
from one cisterna and then fusing
with the one it
stack of cisternae (dictyosome)
(processes ptoteins and lipids and
directs them to their destinations, for
example,into lysosomes)
cis-cisterna (returns to the ER any
proteins wrongly sent to the Golgi
body)
trans-cisterna (sorts the proteins and
lipids and directs them to their
destinations, for example, into
lysosomes)
Golgi Body
5. Finally, the Golgi body dispatches its products by packaging
them in small secretory vesicles which bud from the trans face.
The secretory vesicles will be delivered to and fused with other
organelles within the cell such as lysosomes. In other cases,
they are delivered to the plasma membrane where they fuse
with the membrane and their protein contents are released to
the outside of the cell in a process called exocytosis.
6. The secretory vesicles produced by the Golgi body play an
important role in adding surface area to the cell membrane.
When releasing its contents to the exterior through the process
of exocytosis, the membrane of the rupture vesicle may remain
as a permanent addition to the plasma membrane.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Lysosomes
1. Lysosomes are found in all animal cells and in certain plant cells.
2. When observed through the electron microscope, lysosomes appear as
dark spherical bodies in the cytoplasm and their diameters are generally
smaller than that of mitochondria. A typical animal cell may conatin several
hundred lysosomes.
3. A lysosome is a membrane-bound sac of hydrolytic enzymes that the cell
uses to digest macromolecules. The fluid within the lysosome is highly
acidic.
4. The rough ER and Golgi body cooperate to make lysosomes. First, the
rough ER puts the enzymes and membranes together. Then the Golgi body Take Note
chemically refines the enzymes and releases mature lysosomes. The name lysosome is derived
from two Greek words: ‘lysis’ and
5. The membrane of the lysosome is very unique. This is a single membrane
‘soma’ meaning ‘destruction’ and
can prevent the leakage of enzymes and is able to resist digestion. This is
‘body’, respectively. It is also at
important as excessive leakage of enzymes from a number of lysosomes can
times referred to as ‘suicide bags’.
lead to the autodigestion of the cell. However, the detailed structure of the
membrane is yet to be understood.
6. Lysosomes illutrate the main theme of the eukaryotic cell structure:
compartmentalization. The lysosomal membrane encloses a compartment
where digestive enzymes are storedand safely isolated from the rest of the
cytoplasm. Without lysosomes a cell cannot carry active hydrolytic enzymes
without digesting itself.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Lysosomes
7. (a) The main function of lysosome is intercellular digestion, digesting the
food and wastes of the cell.
(b) Lysosomes also play a very important role in the defense system.
White blood cells ingest bacteria into vacuoles and lysosomal enzymes
emptied into these vacuoles rupture the bacterial cell walls.
(c) Lysosomes serve as recycling centers for redundant and damaged
organelles. Old and worn-out cell organelles that no longer function
normally are enclosed in a membrane and broken down by lysosomes in a
similar manner. The whole process is called autophagy. The resulting simple
molecules are reused to construct new organelles.
(d) When a cell dies, its own lysosomes release enzymes that digest the
remains of the cell in a process known as autolysis.

1. Food, in form of small molecules, will be ingested into the cell at the plasma 4. A digestive vacuole is formed. Food that has been digested into simple molecules
membrane by a processes called phagocytosis. The plasma membrane curves and diffuses out through the membrane of the vacuole and into the cytoplasm. These
folds in (invaginates). A food particle together with a drop of water is trapped during nutrients will then act as raw materials for synthetic processes taking place in the
the process. cell.

2. A food vacuole or a phagosome is formed. 5. After absorption, the digestive vacuole becomes a waste body containing
residues that cannot be further digested. The waste body moves to, and fuses with
3. The membrane of a phagosome fuses with the membrane of a lysosome. the plasma membrane, releasing the debris to the outside of the through
Enzymes from the lysosome break down the food particles. exocytosis, a process that is the reverse of phagocytosis.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Mitochondria
1. The name mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) means ‘thread granule’. This describes
what the mitochondrion looks like under the light microscope - a tiny, rod-like structure in
the cytoplasm of almost all cells.

2. Mitochondria occur in all eukaryotic cells in large numbers possibly more than a
thousand in a cell that is metabolically very active. As a generally rule, animal cells, being
more active, have larger numbers of mitochondria than plant cells.
3. Mitochondria appear in electron micrographs as cylindrical organelles. Occasionally,
they can exist in other shapes such as rods or filaments. They very in size but are within the
range of 0.5 - 1.5 µm long.
4. (a) Each mitochondrion is bound by a double unit membrane, the outer membrane
being a smooth continuous boundary.
(b) The inner membrane is extensively enfolded to form partitions called cristae (singular, crista)
(c) The intermembrane space between the outer and inner membrane is narrow and filled with fluid.
5. (a) The cristae extend into and partially partition the interior of mitochondria which is filled with a fluid called the mitochondrial matrix.
(b) The matrix is a mixture of enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, RNA and ribosomes. The surface of cristae facing the matrix is covered with stalked
particles. The number of cristae is proportional to the energy requirement of the cell
6. Mitochondria provide the energy a cell needs for all its activities such as movement, cell division and production of secretory products. In short,
mitochondria are site of energy production. They are described as ‘cellular power plants’ because they generate most of the cell’s supply
triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Mitochondria
9. (a) Mitochondria and chloroplasts have a few unique properties that
differentiate them from other membrane-bound organelles.
(i) Although mitochondria and chloroplasts are enclosed by
membranes, they are not part of the endomembrane system. This is becuase
the membrane proteins of mitochondria and chloroplasts are not made by
the ER,but by ribosomes contained within the mitochondria and chloroplasts
themselves.
(ii) Mitochondria and choroplasts contain their own DNA. It is this DNA
that programs the synthesis of proteins made by ribosomes in the organelle
itself.
(iii) Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two of the very few organelles in the cell that can undergo self-replication. After mitotic cell division,
mitochondria are equally divided between the two young daugther cells. As the cells grow, the number of mitochondria is increased through the
division of existing mitochondria.
(b) These observations led to the conclusion that mitochondria and chloroplasts are semi-autonomous organelles that grow and reproduce
within themselves.
Differences
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Cell Organelles
Chloroplasts and Plastids
1. Plastids are group of large organelles found in the cytoplasm of all
plant cells but not in animal cells.
2. Plastids can be divided into the categories.
(a) Chloroplasts
Green-colored plastids containing the green pigment chlorophyll
along with enzymes and other molecules that function in the
photosynthetic production of food.
(b) Chromoplasts
Colored plastids rich in pigments such as carotenoids that give
fruits, flower and leaves their orange, red and yellow colors.
(c) Leucoplasts
Non-colored plastids that do not contain any pigments.
3. Among the three categories of plastids, choloroplasts is the most studied due to its important role in photosynthesis.
4. In vascular plants, the chloroplast is a large organelle usually in the shape of a biconvex disc. Its diameter is in the range of 5-10. The size of
chloroplast is much bigger when compared to a mitochondrion.
5. The number of choloroplasts within each type of cell varies. A cell of a certain algae may contain only one chloroplast whereas a leaf mesophyll
cell may contain 40-50 chloroplasts.
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Cell Organelles
Chloroplasts and Plastids
6. When observed through the electron microscope, each chloroplast is
seen to consist of an envelope of two membranes ((double membrane)
separated by a very narrow intermembrane space. Within the chloroplast is
a gel-like matrix called the stroma, and a well-developed system of internal
chloroplast membranes called lamellae. The stroma contains ribosomes,
DNA and photosynthetic enzymes. It also stores lipid droplets and startch.

7. Lamellae consist of round, coin-like flattened sacs called thylakoids that

pile up to form stacks called granum (plural grana). Each granum has a
diameter of about 0.4-0.6 . Connecting one granum to another granum
are intergranal lamellae. Each chloroplast has been 50 grana and each
granum is a stack of about 50 thylakoids.
Structure of a chloroplast. The enzymes and other molecules
8. (a) The thylakoid membrane (granal lamellae) separates the stroma from
required for photosynthesis are located in the membranes and
the thylakoid space which are respectively, the sites of the light-
stroma inside the chloroplast. These membranes are folded into
independent and light-dependent reactions and photosysntheis. This is yet
thylakoids and stacked into grana.
another of compartmentalization.
(b) Embedded within the thylakoid membranes are photosynthetic pigments and electron-tranport-system molecules. In green plants, the
photosynthetic pigments are mixture of five main types of molecules: chloropyll a, chloropyll b, carotene, xanthophyll and pheophytin.
9. The stacking up of thylakoids to form grana increases the surface area for the attachement of chlorophyll molecules within the limited
space in the cell.
Differences
Structure, Function
betweenand
Animal
Distribution
and PlantofCells
Cell Organelles
Chloroplasts and Plastids
10. The process of photosynthesis in green plants can be divided
into two stages.
(a) Light-dependent reactions
(b) Light-independent reactions
Both reactions occur simultaneously in the chloroplast.
11. During light-dependent which take place on the thylakoid
membranes, chlorophyll molecules capture the energy of sunlight
and transfer it to electron-transport-system molecules in the
thylakoid membranes. These molecules in turn transfer the energy
to ATP and another type of energy carrier molecules, . The energy
carriers then diffuse into the stroma, providing energy for the
light-independent reactions.
12. During light-independent reactions which take place in the stroma, energy from the energy carriers (ATP and ) is used for the synthesis of
sugar from carbon dioxide and water.
13. (a) Chloroplasts usually contain starch granules and oil droplets. The starch granules are temporary storage sites for the immediate products
of photosynthesis. Accumulation of starch only occurs after the plant has undergone very active photosynthesis during the day.
(b) Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
Differences
Structure, Function
betweenand
Animal
Distribution
and PlantofCells
Cell Organelles
Chloroplasts and Plastids
14. A chromoplast does not contain chlorophyll. It is yellow, orange
or red due to the presence of carotenoid pigments synthesized and
stored in it. The color of young leaves, flowers and ripening fruits is
due to the presence of chromoplasts. Chromoplasts can also be
formed from chloroplasts that have lost their chloropyll and internal
membrane. This process takes place during the ripening of fruits.

15. (a) Leucoplasts are storage plastids for nutrients such as starch
grains, oil and protein granules. Leucoplasts are not colored since
they do not contain chlorophyll or any other pigments.
(i) Plastids full of starch are called amyloplasts and are
found in roots and tubers (underground storage stems) such as
potatoes and carrots.
(ii) Elaioplasts are leucoplasts that store oil whereas aleuroplasts are leucoplasts that store proteins.
(b) When exposed to light for a prolonged period of time, leucoplasts can develop chloropyll and become chloroplasts. This change can be
observed when potatoes are stored in illuminated conditions.
Differences
Structure, Function
betweenand
Animal
Distribution
and PlantofCells
Cell Organelles
Vacuole
1. A vacoule is a fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane. It is clearly seen within the
cytoplasm of plant cells. Most mature plant cells have one large central vacoule.

2. (a) Meristematic cells undergoing active cell divisions usually have numerous small
vacoules or do not have any vacuole at all.
(b) As the cell grow, the size of one vacoule increases due to the merging of various small
vacoules to form a large central vacoule that occupies about 90% of the volume in a plant
cell.
(c) To make way for the increasing volume of the vacuole cytoplasm is pushed aside
forming only a very thin layer pressing against the inside of the cell wall.
3. The single membrane that surrounds the vacoule is called the tonoplast. The fluid within
the vacoule is called cell sap. Cell sap is a concentrated solution of mineral salts, sugars,
amino acids, wastes (such as tannins) and sometimes pigments such as anthocyanins.
4. Plants lack waste disposal systems and often utilize vacoules as a storage place for waste materials. Such as waste products often aggregate and
form small crystals inside the vacoule, usually in the form of calcium oxalate crystals.
5. The vacoule may also be a site of pigment deposition. Anthocyanins are a group of pigements that cause the brilliant red, dark red and blue
colors of many vegetables, fruit, flowers and leaves. Unlike the most pigments, anthocyanins are readily soluble in water and they are dissolved
within the cell sap.
Differences
Structure, Function
betweenand
Animal
Distribution
and PlantofCells
Cell Organelles
Vacuole
6. Vacoules also play a role in plant defense. The vacoules of some plants store tannin, a
poisonous substance used to protect the plant from animals.

7. (a) Vacoules play a very important role in improving the surface area to volume ratio of
the plant cell. The surface area to volume ratio is important to cells since it determines the
amount of metabolites that can move into the cell efficiently through diffusion.
(b) Animal cells can improve this ratio by changing their shape or by the folding of the
plasma membrane; but plants cells can do neither of these as they are limited by their cell
wall.
(c) However, plant cells overcome this problem by having a large central vacoule pushing
the cytoplasm to the side, thus forming a very thi layer pressing against wall. This ensures
that the cytoplasm and nucleus are only a short distance away from the cell surface where
diffusion is most efficient.

8. The tonoplast plays an important role in the active transport of certain ions into the vacoule and their retention there. Thus, ions may
accumulate in the cell sap in concentrations far in excess of those in the surrounding cytoplasm.
9. (a) Solutes in cell sap make the soultion generally hypertonic relative to the external medium, thus the tendency for vacoules to take in water by
osmosis. This helps plants to absorb water from its environment and play a role in the water balance of the cell.
(b) The uptake of water into the cell sap through the semipermeable t leads to the development of high turgor pressure within the vacoule. This
turgor pressure pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall and plays an important role cell elongation during cell growth. Turgor pressure also plays
an important role in plant support, especially in non-woody herbaceous plants.
Differences
Structure, Function
betweenand
Animal
Distribution
and PlantofCells
Cell Organelles
Vacuole
10. Some plant vacoules contain hydrolytic enzymes that work exactly like
the enzymes in lysosomes. The tonopalst, just like other membranes, will lose
its sem-permeability after cell death and release enzymes from the vacoule
causing autolysis of the cell.
11. (a) Large vacoules are not found in animal cells. Animal cells usually have
small vacoules which are sometimes reffered to as vesicles. Example of
vacoule found in animal cells are phagocytic vesicles, pinocytic vesicles,
autophagy vacoules and extcretory vacoules.
(b) Many single-celled protozoa have food vacoules or digestive vacoules
that contain food undergoing digestion, and many have contractile vacoules,
which remove excess water and some wastes from the cell.
Differences
Structure, Function
betweenand
Animal
Distribution
and PlantofCells
Cell Organelles
Centrosome and Centrioles
1. In animal cells, microtubules (which help maintain cell shape)
grow out from the centrosome, a distinct region located near the
nucleus.
2. Within the centrosome of an animal cell are a pair of centrioles.
They are hollow cylinders about 0.2 in diameter and 0.5 long. Each
hollow cylinder is composed of nine sets of triplets microtubules
arranged in a ring.
3. Although centrioles may help organize the microtubules assembly,
they are not essential for this function in eukaryotes; centrosomes of
most plant cells lack centrioles altogether.
4. (a) Division of animal cells is preceded as well as stimulated by
centrosome division.
(b) Each centriole will divide into two and each of the two pairs of centrioles will move to the respective poles of the cell.
(c) On reaching the poles, each centriole pair will from asters from which a system of microtubules called spindle fibers radiates.
5. Chromosomes that attach themselves to the spindel fibers at the cell equatorial plane will be pulled towards the opposite poles. Although spindle
fibers are also formed during plant cell mitosis, asters are not observed since plant cells lack centrioles.
6. In cells that move, centrioles divide to form basal bodies from which cilia and flagella are formed.