16/1/2022 Lecture Two Organic Chemistry

Aldehydes, Ketones, and carboxylic acids

Functional group
In most organic compounds, atom or group of atoms arrange within a molecule to give a compound new chemical, and
physical properties. Also functional groups play a significant role in increasing the reactivity, by controlling the direction of the
reactions; for example the Alkyl chains which have the covalent bond between Carbon- Carbon: (R ₃ C - C R ₃) gives nonreactive
compound, but when substituted Carbon- Carbon bond with double bond, as indicated: ( R ₂ C = C R ₂ ) the resulting is reactive
unsaturated alkyl compound. The presence of functional group (> C = C <) allow for relative increase in both reactivity and
specificity.

Functional Grop
Mostly the functional group is the non- hydrocarbon part, sometimes are atoms often (contain O, N, S, P, or Cl -), also group of
atoms as in Table 1.
 16/1/2022 Lecture Two Organic Chemistry

Aldehydes, Ketones, and carboxylic acids

Functional group
In most organic compounds, atom or group of atoms arrange within a molecule to give a compound new chemical, and
physical properties. Also functional groups play a significant role in increasing the reactivity, by controlling the direction of the
reactions; for example the Alkyl chains which have the covalent bond between Carbon- Carbon: (R ₃ C - C R ₃) gives nonreactive
compound, but when substituted Carbon- Carbon bond with double bond, as indicated: ( R ₂ C = C R ₂ ) the resulting is reactive
unsaturated alkyl compound. The presence of functional group (> C = C <) allow for relative increase in both reactivity and
specificity.

Functional Grop
Mostly the functional group is the non- hydrocarbon part, sometimes are atoms often (contain O, N, S, P, or Cl -), also
group of atoms. Functional groups play a significant role in increasing its reactivity, by controlling the direction of the reactions;

Alkyl chains of (R₃ C - C R₃) are nonreactive, but when substituted give ( R ₂ C = C R ₂ ) unsaturated alkyl chains, the

presence of functional group (> C = C <) allow for relative increase in both reactivity and specificity.
 Table 1: The functional groups of organic compounds: in Alcohol Hydroxyl group, Alkene Double Bond (> C = C <), and
Aldehyde, Ketone, carboxylic acid functional group is Carbonyl group (>C=O) they are called Carbonyl Compounds.

Functional group: Chemical Name, and Formula

(-OH) Hydroxyl group Alcohol (R- CH2 – OH )

(> C = C <) Double Bond Alkene -( R2 C = C R2 )

this group is present in Glucose ) R-C H =O ( Carbonyl group Aldehyde (RCHO )

(R-COOH) in fatty acids, and Vinegar. Carboxyl group Carboxylic acid (RCOOH )

(R >C=O R,) ) this group is present in Carbonyl group Ketone ( R₂CO

Fructose

Carbonyl Compounds:
Carbonyl Compounds are consisted of carbon- oxygen double bounded (>C=O). Its polar or water soluble due to
ability to form Hydrogen bonding, respectively as in, Figure 1.

Figure 1: The hydrogen bonding between slightly positive hydrogen and a lone pair of the
.oxygen of carbonyl group
 Aldehyde, Ketone, and carboxylic acids are all containing of carbonyl group in their chemical formula, so they
called Carbonyl Compounds.

:Biological Significance of Ketone Bodies

Aldehydes, and ketones are critical in human body, they present in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids,
hormones, vitamins, also in other organic compound, and Drugs. Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes. It is a
metabolic disease that causes high blood sugar.
The hormone insulin moves sugar from the blood circulation inside the cells to be stored or used for energy. In diabetes,
the body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t effectively use the blood insulin it does make causing increase the
accumulation of carbohydrate in circulation or increasing blood sugar this pathological condition named diabetes mellitus.
Untreated high blood sugar from diabetes can damage nerves, eyes, kidneys, and other organs.

Diabetes

Diabetes is an abnormal condition caused by a defect in production of insulin there are two different types of diabetes:
1. Type I diabetes: Due to lacking insulin production , or Hereditary disorders in new born and teenagers.

2. Type II diabetes: Due to deficient in insulin or resistant to insulin in older ages.

 Acetone is the most important ketone to health. The normal concentration level of acetone in blood is less than 1
mg/100 mL. Any excess of acetone in bloodstream is a common symptom of diabetes.
The Source of Energy for Diabetic Patients
Normally Insulin is a hormone that allows glucose from the bloodstream to enter cells and regulate its level after
carbohydrate mail finally to be used as energy.
In order that there is no insulin, or low levels in the diabetic patient of the two types, diabetic patient are gaining
energy, by increase the of breaking down the fatty acids, and proteins as energy source.
Moreover, instead of carbohydrates as a fuel, fatty acids are oxidized to produce energy, mainly in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Protein produces a large quantity of ketone bodies used as energy instead of
carbohydrates. Moreover, this condition can be prevented by monitoring blood insulin levels. It is important to know
if diabetic's body is subjected to stress, such as
1. illness
2.disruption to insulin treatment
3.surgery
A condition called diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) can occur.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA):
for an excess of ketones in bloodstream is a urine test, also blood test will be more accurate. Although it is dependable way of
determining ketone buildup, ketone breathe excess is often associated with fruity smelling breath Figure 2.

(a) (b)
Figure 2: a- Plasma concentration of Glucose, and Ketone Bodies at starvation. b--The Acetone-Urine test is a simple urine test to detect the level of acetones
in the body, when the acetones in the blood go above a certain level.
Reference http://gooddayshealthcare.in/product/acetone-urine/[Reference: https://chem.libretexts.org/ and 5.3 Functions and Applications of Aldehydes
and Ketones Difficulty Level: Basic | Created by: CK-12]
 The presence of Aldehyde, Ketone, and carboxylic acids:
Aldehyde, Ketone, and carboxylic acids are present in different compounds of human body, here is some of them:
①-Monosaccharide's:
Monosaccharide's are carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolyzed to small molecules, contain carbons with functional
aldehyde, or keto group present in nature. Glucose is Aldohexose presents in our blood, and gives rise to energy on
oxidation. Fructose is ketohexose respectively.
 ②- Aldopentose Ribose is constituent of nucleic acids monomer, of Deoxy- ribo Nucleic Acid DNA.

③ -Ketone Bodies: Ketone Bodies are:

1.Acetoacetate
2.beta-hydroxy butyrate
3. acetone.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
A class of organic compounds have a carbonyl group(>C=O ) attached to a hydroxyl group ( -OH ) to generate a carboxyl
group( -COOH ). Acetic acid is meaning Vinegar a type of carboxylic acid. It’s a weak acid. Fatty acid is the other example of
carboxylic acid in human body.
Using the definition of an acid is a "substance which donates protons (hydrogen ions) to other things, carboxylic acids are
acidic refer to the presence of hydrogen ion in -COOH group. Carboxylic acids dissociate as H+ ions with water froming
hydronium ions H3O+, thus increasing the hydronium concentration of the solution leading to acidic solution. While if the
hydronium concentration decreases, the pH increases, resulting in a more basic solution. In the following equation a solution of
water, hydrogen ion H+ is transferred from the ( -COOH ) group to a water molecule, to get an acetate ion CH₃ COO¯formed
together with a hydroxonium ion, H3O+.
CH₃COOH + H₂O ↔ CH₃COO¯ + H3O+.
Carboxylic acid = CH₃COOH
Carboxylic acid Salt = CH₃ COO¯
Hydronium ions = H3O+

The pH of carboxylic acid solutions

The pH the power of hydrogen ion in a solution which appear to form acidic or basic effect. The pH is indicating a scale (0-14)
.used to specify the acidity or basicity of a solution
Number 7 the middle of a scale is neutral, more than neutral refer to basic solution and less than 7 is acidic solution. Zero is
strongly acidic. Blood is normally slightly basic, with a normal pH range of 7.35 to 7.45. Usually the body maintains the pH of
.blood close to 7.40

The Effect of Metabolic Acidosis

Metabolic Acidosis usually cause:

1. Ketoacidosis
When diabetic patients don't get enough insulin,  the body burns fat instead of carbohydrates fuel, and makes ketones

accumulate in blood, so blood turn acidic then damage nerves, eyes, kidneys, and other organs .
2. Alcoholism:
Alcoholism are people who drink a lot of alcohol for a long time and don't eat enough also build up ketones cause damaging
of organs.

3. Renal tubular acidosis

Healthy Kidneys, take acids out of blood and get rid of them in pee. Kidney diseases and genetic disorders can damage kidney so
they leave too much acid in blood.

4. Ingestion Salicylates.
The clinical Features of ingestion Salicylates evolved rapidly over 24 hours early signs appear: Cause nausea, vomiting, and
abdominal pain.
The Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: The group (RC=O) is called the acyl group, which is a part of the functional group
of the carboxylic acid derivatives, these derivatives include, esters, and amides. Table 3 bellow.

Table 3: Carboxylic Acid Derivatives.

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives Esters amides

Examples in living systems Acetyl coenzyme Paracetamol, Penicillin.

A