LEARNING

A LECTURE PRESENTED
BY
DR. U.J. NWOGU
 
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
 INTRODUCTION
All living organisms especially animals
including man respond and interact
with other beings and their
environment. This interaction result
into changes due to the new
experience. This experience gives rise
to learning.
 What is Learning?
Learning is a process that spans through
the life time of every individual. In fact,
there is no end to learning because new
experiences arising from age,
circumstance, time etc. present every
learner with new knowledge and hence
alter the learner’s behaviour. These
alterations in behaviour pattern can be
negative or positive.
However, within the organized classroom,
learning is a motivated action which is
actualized when the learner directs his
attention along defined and planned
channels. This involves the engagement of
the faculties which requires active
engagement, being emotionally receptive,
retentive and cognitive awakening through
structured and planned learning process
which is thought provoking, clear and
compelling.
From the psychological perceptive,
learning is defined as a relatively
permanent change in behaviour resulting
from experience. This experience
excludes changes due to fatigue, injury or
disease. Here, experience plays the role
of a great teacher by altering the
individuals nervous system to enable him
adapt to changing circumstances.
Unfortunately, not all
behaviours are learnt. Some
behaviours occur as a result of
maturity, natural growth or
development (e.g. child
development, in born reflexes
and automatic reflexes)
for example, if you touch a baby’s
face he will respond by turning
towards your hand but if you
touch his mouth he will turn for
sucking. In view of the forgoing,
the following definitions need to
be presented and discussed.
1. “A relatively permanent process
that is inferred from performance
changes due to practice”
(Ellis 1972). The above definition
suggests that learning takes place
when a learner’s performance
changes as a result of practice.
2. Learning is a relatively
permanent change in
behaviour which occurs as a
result of past experience,
(Lawson, Goldstein and Musty
1975). Here experience plays
a role in the learning process.
3. Gagne (1977) provided a more
elaborate definition which saw
learning as a process that takes place
“when the stimulus situation
together with the content of
memory affect the learner in such a
way that his performance changes
from a time before being in that
situation to a time after being in it.
The change in performance is what
leads to the conclusion that learning
has occurred”. The elements in this
definition are the learner, the events
that stimulate learner’s senses
(stimulus) contents of the memory,
and the response which approximates
performance. This is represented thus:
 Practice
Organism Interact with the environment through or
Experience

Learning That brings about

Change in
performance of
the program

Source: Nwankwo, O.C (2007) Psychology of learning: The

Human perspective. Port Harcourt, Pam Unique pub.co.
Theories of Learning: Generally, theories are
seen as sets of propositions, assumptions,
generalizations and constructs which help in
the prediction of phenomena. Its functions
include the explanation of functions,
provision of framework for classification
(Taxonomic) so that data can be used,
heuristic function which provides a base for
further generalization of knowledge,
predictive function which
establishes relationship among
observed variables, storage
function, guide to action,
identification of relevant
phenomena, a framework for
understanding organizational
behaviour among others.
From the foregoing therefore,
we can see learning theories
as guides for the practice and
actualization of learning.
There are several theories of
learning; however, a few will
be examined within this series.
1. Behavioural Learning Thories
The earliest proponents of these
theories include Ivan Pavlov (1849-
1936), a Great Russian physiologist, E.L.
Thorndike and B.F. Skinner. Their theory
believes that learning occurs through
the process of conditioning while
reinforcement motivates the learning
process.
(a) Classical Conditioning
(Ivan Pavlov).
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian
Physiologist. His theory on learning
is a product of the research he was
carrying out on digestion especially
on salivation in dogs.
Procedure: Pavlov made a
surgical opening in a dog’s cheek
to measure the rate of salivation,
in order to do this; he placed the
dog in a particular position and
inserted a tube that conducted
saliva away from the dogs salivary
gland to a measuring device.
He placed a tray filled with food in front of
the dog in such a way that the dog could
pick food when made available. Pavlov
moved out of sight from the dog but kept
watch on the dog’s response. He then
sounded a bell on a neutral stimulus but
there was no salivation for several times.
Pavlov decided to drop some food in the
tray, a few seconds after sounding the
bell, salivation occurred.
After some times Pavlov sounded the bell
without dropping any food yet salivation
occurred. Pavlov further observed that
when the bell sounded too often without
food salivation stopped. He further
observed that if similar sounds are made
salivation would occur when food is
presented. Therefore, to ensure that
behaviour is sustained food was
presented with the sound of bell.
In this experiment the following can
be deduced:
1. Constant provision of food at the
sound of bell enabled discrimination.
2. Food which automatically or
reflexively elicited the salivation is
referred to as Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS).
3. Salivation is unconditioned
response (UCR).
4. The bell which originally elicited no
response but now elicits salivation is
called Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
5. The response is called conditioned
response (CR).
This can be represented as shown
below:
2. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
Operant condition is defined as a process
through which a response becomes more
or less likely to occur depending on its
consequences. It is also called
instrumental conditioning. The major
proponents of this theory are E.L.
Thorndike and B.F. Skinner (1949).
E.L. Thorndike set up an experiment
called the puzzle box; it was a cage with a
built mechanism or lever in which the
gate opens when operated correctly.
Inside the box he placed a hungry rat;
outside the box he placed a dish of food.
In that cage, the rat was frightened and
hence scampered for the food round the
box until it suddenly pulled the lever
which suddenly opens to allow the rat
access to the food.
Eventually, the rat learns how to
open the door through trial and
error since each successful
attempt at the right place gives
access to the food. Based on
this, Thorndike formulated
some laws which guide learning.
(a) Law of Effect: Responses that occur
before the satisfaction of a state of
affair will be repeated while those that
fail to satisfy will be avoided.
(b) Law of Exercise: This law bothers
on practice of what has been learned.
Here repetition strengthens learning
while practice helps to retain what has
been learned.
(c) The Law of Readiness: This
emphasizes that certain behaviours or
responses are more likely to be retained
depending on the learner’s maturity,
experience and willingness.
(d) The Law of Multiple Response: The
law contends that when individuals are
exposed to difficult tasks that do not have
already made solutions they make
different attempts to solve them.
During these attempts
responses are discriminated.
In view of this, Thorndike’s
theory is sometimes
referred to as Trial and Error
learning theory.
B.F. Skinner: Skinner was the
most foremost to develop the
bases or fundamentals for
operant conditioning. According
to him human behaviour can
easily be influenced by the
principle of reinforcement.
According to him, when a particular
learner’s behaviour (response) is
immediately accompanied by a
pleasurable consequence, a
repetition of the behaviour is more
likely until it becomes more
permanent than when it is
accompanied by negative or
unpleasurable consequence.
Therefore like Thorndike, Skinner
constructed a box called Skinner box with
an inbuilt lever mechanism. He placed a rat
inside the box. In the box the in built
mechanism when pressed will release food
into an attached tray. The rat which was
inside the environment accidently presses
the lever and food is released into the tray.
The rat gradually learns to press the lever
each time it needed food.
To Skinner a link is
usually formed between
response and
reinforcement rather
than stimulus and
response.
Pre-Requisites for Efficient
Learning
Efficient and effective learning
is not easy to achieve.
Learning naturally depends on
a number of factors:
1. Readiness – This refers to the physical and
mental maturation and accumulation of
experiences on which the new experiences will
be built.
2. Motivation – This is the spring board for
learning, it could be intrinsic or extrinsic.
3. Activity – Learning is activity based
4. Attendance: Organized learning takes place
under the guidance of the teacher. Participation
is important as it affords learners the
opportunity to learn from hidden curriculum.
5. Interest – The learner’s interest in
what is to be learned is important.
6. Revision – This improves mastery.
7. Concentration - Concentration
influences listening and communication
8. Training And Practice – Whatever is
learned is further developed through
practice.
 Types of Learning
There are different types of learning
1. Conditioning: This type of learning
deals with the association of what exists
such as habits, attitudes, beliefs etc. that
are related to such experiences. This
learning process is easier because it is
more or less a habit which the learner
has already acquired or learned.
2. Trial And Error: This is
acquired through
experience from repeated
actions or trials.
3. Insight Learning: This leads to a deeper
understanding or assimilation of what the
learner already knows. It includes new
techniques of doing the same work which in
most cases brings exclamation and relief as
it makes learning process shorter and
simpler, e.g. A student who finds it difficult
to remember the factors responsible for
growth of nations may discover later that it
is easier when he formulates mnemonic for
the points.
4. Imitation: This is achieved
through admiration of what we
see e.g. Imitation of English
pronunciation from a teacher.
5. Memorization: A special kind of
learning such as recitations, such
materials is arranged in special
order.
 Characteristics of Learning
The major characteristics of learning include:
1.It involves the acquisition of knowledge
2.It involves listening
3.It involves information and its delivery
4.It involves observation, cogitation and reflection
5.It involves association of learning experiences
6.It is unconscious and progressive
7.It involves imitation and attachment of
relationship to experiences
8. It involves choice (decision making) and
exploration
9. It involves guidance and counseling
10. It is formal and informal
11. It is a practical activity
12. It spans through an individual’s life span.
13. It is goal directed
14. It involves skills, explanation and demonstration.
15. It involves accountability (evaluation)
How to Tackle Assignments,
Projects and Writing of Reports
Tackling assignments, projects
and writing of academic papers
is an onerous task that needs
obstinate perseverance to
succeed.
However, writing is a fairly
thankless endeavor. Most often
neophyte writers make frantic
efforts to impress their readers
and to earn better marks.
Unfortunately, majority of the
learners gradually become
involved in new writer’s errors.
These errors, according to Murray (2008) include:
(a) Writing too much about the problem
(b) Over stating the problem and claiming too much
for their solution.
(c) Over stating the critique of others’ work
(d) Not saying what they mean, losing focus
through indirect writing.
(e) Putting too many ideas in one paper.
In order to overcome the above
Hartley and Branthwaite (1989)
and Williams (2013) submit that
learners would tackle
assignments, projects and report
writing by:
1. Making a rough plan of the work
2. Completing section one at a time
3. Using a word processor if possible
4. Revising and redrafting at least twice
5. Planning to spend about 2 to 5 hours
writing per week in term twine
6. Finding quiet conditions and always writing
in the same place
7. Setting goals and targets for yourself
8. Inviting colleagues and friends to comment
on early drafts
9. Collaborating with long standing colleagues
and trusted friends
10. Being conscious of your audience
11. Arranging work sequentially and orderly
12. Providing a folder for all works
13. Citing and referencing simultaneously
14. Proofreading work properly
 References
Ellis, C.H. (1972). Fundamentals of human learning
and cognition. Iowa: Brown Co. pub
Gagne, R.M. (1977). The conditions of learning. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Hartley, J. & Branthwaite, A (1989). The psychologist
as wordsmith: a questionnaire study of the
writing strategies of productive British
psychologists, Higher Education, 18:423-52
Lawson, R.B., Goldstein, S.G. & Musty,
R.E. (1975). Principles and methods of
psychology. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Murray, R. (2008). Writing for academic
journals. London: Bell & Bain Ltd.
Nwankwo, O.C (2007). Psychology of
Learning: The Human Perspective, Port
Harcourt Pam Unique pub.co.
Nwafor, N.H.A. & Nwogu, U.J. (2014).
Dynamics of Classroom
Communication. Port Harcourt: Sambiz
Pub.co.
Wade, C. & Tavris, C. (1990).
Psychology. New York: Harper & Row
Pub.
Williams, C. (2013). Fundamentals of
Seminar in education. Omoku: Jef
Printing and Publishing co.