Chapter 4

Statistics in Research
&
Processing and Data Analysis
Introduction

Types of Statistics
 Descriptive
 Inferential

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Introduction
 The data collected is nothing more than a
group of numbers till analyzed
 Statistical analysis converts numbers into
meaningful conclusions
 What is statistics? The collecting,
summarizing, and analyzing of data
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 Descriptive & Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

• Organize • Generalize from

samples to pops
• Summarize
• Hypothesis testing
• Simplify • Relationships
• Presentation of among variables
data

Describing data Make predictions

Descriptive Statistics
 Organize,Summarize and Simplify
Presentation of data.
Organizingdata
Summarizing data

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Organizing data
Tables
Frequency Distributions
Relative Frequency Distributions

Graphs
Bar Chart or Histogram
Line Charts

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Descriptive Statistics
 Concerned with describing or characterizing the
obtained sample data
 Use of summary measures—typically measures of
central tendency and spread
 Measures of central tendency include the mean, median,
and mode
 Measures of spread include the range, variance, and
standard deviation.
 These summary measures of obtained sample data are
called statistics
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Mean
 The sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores.
 Often referred to as the average.
 Good measure of central tendency.
 Central tendency is simply the location of the middle in a
distribution of scores.
 The mean can be misleading because it can be greatly influenced
by extreme scores (very high, or very low scores).
n

x i
i 1
X
n
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Median
 The middle value when a variable’s values are ranked in order;
the point that divides a distribution into two equal halves.
 When data are listed in order, the median is the point at which
50% of the cases are above and 50% below it.
 The median is unaffected by outliers, making it a better measure
of central tendency, better describing the “typical person” than the
mean when data are skewed.
 If the recorded values for a variable form a symmetric distribution,
the median and mean are identical.
 In skewed data, the mean lies further toward the skew than the
median.
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Mode
 The most common data point is called the mode.
 It may not be at the center of a distribution.
 It may give you the most likely experience rather than the
“typical” or “central” experience.
 In symmetric distributions, the mean, median, and mode
are the same.
 In skewed data, the mean and median lie further toward
the skew than the mode.

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10
Range
 The spread, or the distance, between the lowest and
highest values of a variable.
 To get the range for a variable, you subtract its lowest
value from its highest value.
 Variance
 A measure of the spread of the recorded values on a variable. A measure
of dispersion.
 The larger the variance, the further the individual cases are from the
mean.
 The smaller the variance, the closer the individual scores are to the mean.

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Standard Deviation (SD)
 A summary statistic of how much scores vary
from the mean
 Square root of the Variance
expressed in the original units of measurement
Represents the average amount of dispersion in
a sample

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 2
n
( xi   )

i 1 n
  2
, Variance

2
n
( xi   ) Standard

i 1 n
  deviation

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Choosing the right test
Types of Inferential Statistics

 Relationships Between Variables

 Differences Between Groups

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Relationships Between Variables
 Linear Regression, Pearson's r:
 The general equation for the line is Y = mX + b. The
equation used in linear regression is written like this:
 Y = a + bX

 r directly measures the degree of association between two

variables ( X and Y)
 Simple linear regression computes an equation of a line which allows
researchers to predict one variable from another
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Multiple Regression
 The procedure we will study & analyzes three
or more variables simultaneously is multiple
linear regression.

 develop “models” which relate two or more “predictor

variables” to a single predicted variable. (X1, X2 … and Y)

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Further Read on the following to make
comparison between groups than variables
 Sample Z-test (Norm. Dist) ( Compare sample Mean with
population mean when Sigma is known and n>30)
 Sample t-test ( Compare two groups )
 Analysis of Variance (One-way ANOVA) ( Make comparison b/n
more than two groups up on a variable ( 2V leads 2-way ANOVA)

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