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Chapter 2
Nursery establishment
and management
 2. Nursery establishment and management

2.1 Nursery site selection

2.2 Nursery bed preparation
2.3 Nursery management
2.4 Methods of growing fruit seedling
 Objectives
• At the end of the chapter, students are
expected to develop an understanding of:-
Nursery site selection, bed preparation,
management and methods of growing fruit
seedling
• What is nursery?
• What are the characteristics of a good nursery
site?
• How do we establish a fruit nursery site?
• When do we start nursery operation?
• What are the common management practices in
the nursery?
• What are the major diseases and pests in the
nursery? How do we control them?
 Nursery is a selected site having a well defined boundary
where fruits, vegetables, flower and forest plant species
and their cultivar are maintained and multiplying using
various sexual and asexual propagation techniques.
2.1. Nursery site selection
 The selection of nursery should be made after
considerable care and thought,
since location will have a great impact on the
overall success of nursery

 Criteria's for nursery site selection

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Points to be considered as a pre-requisite during
nursery site selection: -
The area should be climatically suitable
Altitude – suitable
Topography of the location - flat or gentle slope
Sheltered place well protected from wind and dust,
but remove large trees from the immediate locality
Location: should be as close as possible to the
growing field
 Permanent water supply
 Easy access to the nursery
Soil:
Soil should have good structure and porosity
It should be deep, well drained, rich in organic
matter, friable,
sandy loam to clay loam in texture, with high
humus and sufficient water holding capacity.
The optimum soil reaction for most woody
species is 5 to 7.5 pH
Test the soil for the present or absent of
nematodes.
2. 2. Nursery site preparation
• building propagation structures, wind breaks and nursery
beds should be laid out.
• Areas to be used for propagation beds and field areas
for the production of field stock should be tested for
nematodes and if necessary fumigated with methyl
bromide, EDB (ethylene dibromide), or some other
fumigant.
• Where chemical fumigation is not possible, a decrease
in soil pathogens may be obtained by covering the
moist beds with a sheet of clear polyethylene for 30 to
60days during hot weather (Solarization)
 Nursery bed preparation entails
 eradication of competing vegetation, leveling and
cultivation of the soil.
All types of stones and roots etc … should be
taken off as they are obstruct the growth of
seedlings.
 Nursery structures
 Propagation structures are desirable in a nursery because
they permit the nursery worker to control the
environmental conditions.
 Structures vary from simple shade house to complex
green houses with automatic controls and accordingly
they vary in the extent to which they control the
environment.
 For rooting of cuttings, the best environmental control
device is an intermittent mist system which can be
mounted in a hot bed, shade house/ greenhouse.
 A variety of storage facilities are needed on site.
2. 3. Methods of growing fruit tree seedlings
A. Container nursery production
 Container nursery production is done on a large scale in
many states.
 Use in commercial horticulture
Propagation
Growing and selling nursery plants
 Different types of container such as plastic and clay pot
are the most commonly used in the nursery for growing a
given seedling.
Advantages of using container:
Convenience for handling
Minimize root disturbance/transplant shock
Media for containers/potting mixes

• When soil is removed from the field and placed

in a container its properties change drastically,
 thus field soils are seldom suitable for use as
potting soils unless they are heavily amended.
 If a high quality nursery stock is to be produced
the following factors should be considered.
 Factors to be considered in developing media for
container nursery:
 The mix must adequately support the plant i.e. it must
heavy enough to prevent the plant from falling over.
 The mix must provide a reservoir for air, moisture and
nutrients i.e. your soil must contain different constituents
such as sand, field soil, organic matter
 The soil must supply all the nutrients that the plant needs
(macro and micro nutrients), these have to be added to
the soil mix
 The pH should be adjusted to a range which is conducive
to making them available to the plant.
A soil mix should also be stable enough to
ensure that its properties do not change
drastically during the period of plant growth.
Materials which tend to compact or organic
matter which tends to decompose rapidly are not
satisfactory.
The soil mix should be free from nematodes,
insects and pathogens.
B. Field nursery production
 In field nurseries plants are grown to the desired size in
ground beds.
 This system is often used for producing shade trees,
flowering trees and evergreen and deciduous shrubs.

Types of field nursery production

 The method of harvesting plants distinguishes the
production systems in field nursery production into two
distinct types:
bare-roots and
balled and bur lapped.
Bare-root trees
 A tree or shrub seedling that is offered for sale without
soil around its root.

They do not store well and are prone to transplanting

shock.
This system is suited for small trees and shrubs.

Bare-root plants are lighter and easier to transport

than balled and burlapped trees.
Balled and burlapped trees
 A tree or shrub seedling that is offered for sale with a
ball of soil around its roots and wrapped in burlap.

 Balled and burlapped systems require plants to be planted

in the ground and dug with a ball of soil around the roots.

 Mechanical harvesters are used for this purpose.

 The ball of soil is wrapped with burlap material and tied.

 If they are not needed immediately, balled and

burlapped plants can be stored for a period of time.
 CHPATER 3.
Establishment and
Management of Orchards
CHPATER 3. Establishment and management of orchards
1. Site selection
2. Land preparation
3. Laying out the planting field
4. Staking and Digging holes for planting
5. Planting fruit tree seedlings
6. Irrigation
7. Mulching, Cultivation and weed control
8. Fertilization
9. Pruning and Training
10. Pest mgt in orchards
11. Harvesting and post harvest handling
 3. Establishment and Management of
Orchards
Orchard:
 Is an area of land on which different or one type of fruit
trees are grown or produced specially for commercial
purpose.
 Orchards comprise fruit producing trees which are grown
for commercial production.

 Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens,

where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive
purpose.
 3.1. Orchard site selection
 Each species of fruit has specialized requirements for
growth and development.
The basic requirements are:
Climate: relatively free from temperature and wind
hazards
Adequate supply of good quality water for irrigation
A reasonable deep and fertile uniform soil with good
internal drainage
Others: like topography, adaptability of varieties
chosen, transportation, labor, etc….
 Selection of site: The following factors are to be
considered before selecting a site for an orchard -
 Factors to be considered while Selecting the Site for Fruits

Climate and Soil:

• Climate and soil are the chief natural factors on which
the success or failure of the fruit growing is
dependent.
• Knowledge of the effect of various soil and climatic
condition on fruit growing is very essential for every
prospective fruit growers as a fruit cannot be grown
successfully in every type of soil and climate.
 Climate: is defined as the general temperature and
atmospheric conditions of an area over an extended
period of time.
– The atmospheric condition include rain fall,
 Climate includes several factors like temperature, rain,
atmosphere, humidity, wind, hails, light, whereas
 Climate is one of the most important factor to be considered
during site selection, since it determines what type of fruit
grown where and the quality of fruit produced.
Carful assessments of minimum and maximum
temperature, rain fall level and distribution, wind speed
and direction should be made.

 Rain fall level and distribution is important to determine

whether irrigation is important or not.
 Wind at a speed of 50-65 km/hr can cause drop of fruit.
• Soil
 the soils are such factors as physical condition of the
soil and its fertility, nature of sub –soil, its drainage
condition, temperature, texture and its constitution.
 the soil should have good internal drainage since,
orchard crops are deep rooted & thus, they require
deep soil.
 Water – sufficient quantity of water should be needed for
irrigation hence, the orchard should be located near the
water source

Others:
 Topography – is important from the standing point of
drainage, frost protection, orchard layout, type of irrigation
system, erosion and flood control.
 Flat or gentle sloping site are preferred.
 A slope of 5-10% is manageable and it can be mechanized
 Small orchards can be established up to 25% slope.
 A slope of 30-35% may be terraced.
 Varieties –
 Must be compatible with the environment
 Should have a reasonable marketing
 The rootstock of a given variety should be tolerant to
soil born diseases
 Fruit handling, transportation, market, etc…
Since horticultural crops are highly perishable
products they must be sent to market or processing as
soon as possible.
Packing, shipping and processing plants are near to the
orchard site and should be connected by a good road or
railway, will reduce the transportation cost.
 Irrigation Facilities:
• Adequate irrigation facilities should be available at hand
and round the year.
• The supply of water should be plentiful and it should be
available at a reasonable cost, otherwise the cost of
production will be increased.
• The water should be free from objectionable impurities
(Salts)
 The site should not be close to any diseased plantation
or must be isolated from old plantation.
 Cheap Man Power:
• While selecting the site availability of cheap labor in the
vicinity be taken into considerable so as to keep down the
production cost.
 Owner’s House:
• For effective supervision of the orchard, it is essential that
the owner should have his home in his orchard.
• Therefore, availability of medical, educational and social
amenities in the vicinity also be considered while selecting the
site.
 Market:
• The varieties of crop selected should command a good
demand in the market.
• The market facilities must be available in selected site for
ideal fruit orchard.
3.2. Land preparation
 Land preparation prior to orchard planting consists
of clearing, terracing, installation of irrigation pipes,
fencing, planting of wind breaks and digging holes.

3.2.1. Site clearing

 The extent of site clearing depends on whether the
land has been previously cropped or not.
 If the land has been recently cropped :-
level furrows or ridges,
slash down annual weeds and
dig out perennial weeds
 If the land has not been cultivated :-
All trees and shrubs with their roots should be removed due to
the presence of Armillaria mellea (fungal disease that cause
root rot in fruit trees)
 To control this disease the following measures can be
followed during site clearing
Uprooting stumps and burning them together with the
root system
Ring barking (girdling)
Remove the bark of a tree at about 90-120 cm above the
ground level
This can be done 1 – 3 years before removing the tree
This weakens the survival of finer roots since the root
system depletes the carbohydrate reserve
Remove the tree finally
3.2.2. Terracing and irrigation
 After site clearing, terracing or ridging should be done
on slope to control erosion.
 Combinations of ridging, terracing and cover crops
are necessary in tropical orchards if sever erosion is to
be prevented.
 Installation of pipes and digging of ditches is done
prior to planting.
 The irrigation system must be considered in
conjunction with layout planning and soil
conservation practices.
3.3. Laying out the planting field and planting system
3.3.1. Laying out of the planting field
The arrangement of plants in the orchard is known as lay-out.
 Prior to ordering and planting trees, an orchard plan
should be drawn on paper to show:-
 Location and cultivars name of each tree.
 Irrigation fixtures (If applicable)
 Trellises or tree supports [If support requiring plant (vine):
grape is the fruit of a woody climbing vine]
 Orchards roads and paths.
 Packaging and shade house and any other permanents features
of the orchards.
 The plan is drawn properly
 Planting patterns/systems required
 3.3.2. Planting patterns/systems
 There are different Planting patterns/systems depending on
topography, the growth habit of a tree, the type of machine to
be used:
Square system
Rectangular
Triangular
Quincunx
Hexagonal
Contour
• Points need to be considered before choosing a
system of planting.

– It should accommodate maximum number of plants

per unit area.
– It should allow sufficient space for the development
of each tree.
– It enables equal distribution of area under each tree.
– The intercultural operations such as ploughing,
spraying etc are easily carried out
– It makes supevision more easy and effective.
Descriptions of the different systems:
 In this system a tree is
(1) Square system:
planted at each corner
of a square what ever
may the Planting
distance.

 The distance between

row to row and plant
to plant is same.
Advantages
• Most commonly followed and simplest of all and easy to lay
out.
• Irrigation channels and paths can be made straight.
• The possibility of cultural operations in two directions is the
greatest advantage of this system
• Better supervision of the orchard is possible as one gets a
view of the orchard from one end to the other.

Disadvantages
• Comparatively less number of trees are accommodated in
given area.
• Distance between plant to plant and row to row remains the
same and , hence, certain amount of space in the middle of
four trees is wasted.
(2) Rectangular system:
 Similar to square system,
except that the distance
between plants in the row
and distance between rows
is not the same but
different.

 Row to row distance is

more than that from plant
to plant in the row.
Advantages
• Intercultural operations can be carried out easily in the early
stages.
• Irrigation channel can be made length and breadth wise
• Light can penetrate into the orchard through the large inter
spaces between rows.
• Better supervision is possible.
• Intercropping is possible.

Disadvantages
• Intercultivation is some what difficult when the trees have fully
grown.
• A large area of the orchard between rows is wasted if
intercropping is not practised.
• Less number of trees are planted.
(3) Quincunx or filler system:
• This is also known as filler or diagonal system.
• This is the modification of a square system of
layout distinguished to make use of the empty
space in the center of each square by planting
another plant is called filler tree. Generally the
filler tree will be precocious and shorter duration
and not be of same kind as those planted on the
corner of the square. Guava, phalsa. Plum, papaya,
peaches, kinnow are important fillers.
• They yield some crop before the permanent trees
come into bearing.
• The filler tree is removed when the main fruit trees
grow to full stature and start bearing.
 This system is followed when the distance between permanent
trees exceeds 8m or more or where permanent trees are very slow
in their growth and also take longer time for coming to bearing.
Eg. Sapota, Jackfruit.
Advantages
• 1.Additonal income can be earned from the filler crop till the
main crop comes into bearing. 2. The main advantage of this
system is that the plant population is about double than the
square system. 3. Maximum utilization of the land is possible.
Disadvantages
• 1. Skill is required to layout the orchard. 2. Inter / filler crop can
interfere with the growth of the main crop. 3. The greatest
disadvantage of this system is that, it is difficult to carry out
intercultural operations on account of the filler tree. 4.Spacing of
the main crop is reduced if the filler crop is allowed to continue
after the growth of the main crop.
 (4) Hexagonal system:
• This is also called as equilateral system.
• Some times a seventh tree is planted in the centre
of the hexagon, and then it is called septule
system.
• In this system the trees are planted in each corner
of the equilateral triangle.
• This system differs from the square system in
which the distance between the rows is less than
the distance between the trees in a row, but the
distance from tree to tree in six directions
remains the same.
• This system is usually employed, where land is
expensive and is very fertile with good
availability of water.
Advantages
• Compared to square system 15% more trees can be planted.
• It is an ideal system for the fertile and well irrigated land.
• Plant to plant distance can be maintained the same.
• More income can be obtained.
• This system permits cultivation in three directions.
• The plants occupy the land fully without any waste as in
square system

Disadvantages
• Intercultural operations become difficult.
• Skill is required to layout the orchard.
• This system is not generally followed because it is difficult to
adopt in practice in the field
 (5) Triangular system:
• The trees are planted as in square system but
the difference being that those in the even
numbered rows are midway between those
in the odd rows instead of opposite to them.
• Triangular system is based on the principle
of isolateral triangle. The distance between
any two adjacent trees in a row is equal to
the perpendicular distance between any two
adjacent rows.
• However, the vertical distance, between
immediate two trees in the adjacent rows, is
equal to the product of (1.118 x distance
between two trees in a row).
Merits and demerits:
1. This system is not much of practical importance.
2. Plants are not placed at equal distance from all sides.
3. When compared to square system, each tree
occupies more area and hence it accommodates few
trees per hectare than the square system.

• All the above systems are possible when the land is

flat, plain or level, but not on
• uneven lands and sub-mountane areas (hilly
areas).On undulating lands and hill
• slopes different types of planting systems are
followed, Viz., contour and terracing.
 (6)Contour system:
It is generally followed on the hills where the plants are
planted along the contour across the slope.
• It particularly suits to land with undulated
topography, where there is greater danger of erosion
and irrigation of the orchard is difficult.
• The main purpose of this system is to minimize land
erosion and to conserve soil moisture so as to make
the slope fit for growing fruits and plantation crops.
• The contour line is so designed and graded in such a
way that the flow of water in the irrigation channel
becomes slow and thus finds time to penetrate into
the, soil without causing erosion.
• Terrace system on the other hand refers to planting in
flat strip of land formed across a sloping side of a
hill, lying level along the contours.
• Terraced fields rise in steps one above the other and
help to bring more area into productive use and also
to prevent soil erosion.
• The width of the contour terrace varies according to
the nature of the slope. If the slope becomes stiff, the
width of terrace is narrower and vice-versa.
• The planting distance under the contour system may
not be uniform.
• When the slope is <10% contour bunding is practiced
and if the slope is >10% contour terracing is
practiced.
• In this system the trees are planted along the contour
line at right angles.
• Cultivation and irrigation can be practiced along the
tree rows only.
Advantages
• This system can be adopted in hilly regions and in
leveled land.
• Contour system can control the soil erosion.
• It helps simultaneously in the conservation of water.
• Preservation of plant nutrients supplied by manures and
fertilizers possible.
• Contours form an easy path for movements on the hill
slpes for carrying out various orchard operations such as
weeding, manuering, pruning, harvesting, disease and
pest control.
Disadvantages
• Laying out of contour lines is difficult and time
consuming.
• Special skill is required to layout this system.
• Special instruments are required for making contour
lines.
• The row to row distance will not be equal and
adjustments may be required in the plant to plat
distance.
• Rows are broken in to bits and pieces.
• The no. of plants per unit area will generally be less
than other system
3.4. Digging holes for field planting (Spacing & Lining/Staking)??
 Large holes 0.6 – 1 m in both width and depth are dug prior to
planting
 Put top and sub soil separately.
 Leave the soil for one month.
 One month later refill the top soil only from the surrounding top
soil.
 Refill step by step.
 Refill the hole with a mixture of 50 percent top soil and 50
percent well rotted manure.
 In soils where phosphorus is lacking add superphosphate.
 Pile the soil a bit above the ground level.
 When soil settles (after one month) excavate the soil so that it
can accumulate the seedlings.
3.5. Planting fruit tree seedlings
 During planting some of the soil is removed from the
previously prepared hole and any posts or stakes should
be inserted into the planting hole before planting.

3.5.1. Planting bare root seedlings

Light in weight and easy for transportation
They must be kept cool and they must be kept moist to
avoid desiccation and protect from sun.
They will be wrapped in banana leaves, plastic or other
moisture conserving materials.
After unwrapping, immerse the roots in water for a few
hours before planting
 If there is delay in planting dig a trench in a shady
location and cover the roots with moist soil.
Trim the roots to remove damaged or diseased roots
Refill the soil around the roots and firm the soil at
regular interval
Plant the tree at the same level as it was growing
3.5.2. Container grown plants
 Mostly black plastic pot container grown plants
should be removed from their pot
 Any circling roots should be cut off and soil is
removed from the prepared hole
 Plants grown in easily decomposing material can be
grown as it is
 3.6. Mulching and weed management
Mulching Advantages
• Mulching is coving of  control soil erosion
the surface of the soil  increase soil moisture
 inhibits weed growth
with any available  Adds OM to the soil
materials.  reduces leaf disease
– But it should not  Increases P - absorption
contain reproductive
parts like seed, roots, Disadvantages
rhizomes, stolons etc.  Increases termite attack
 Increases root disease problem
 It is labor intensive
Weed management
 The combination of mulch and cover crops will control
many weeds.
– But during the seedling stage, the plant must be carefully
protected from weeds.

 Weeding should be carried out often,

– to ensure that weeds do not produce seeds and
– do not grow large enough to compete with the plants.

 The best way is killing the weeds

– Manual control,
– Mechanical action and
– Chemicals 
3.7. Irrigation
 Irrigation is frequent, costly, repetitive and time
consuming cultural practice in arid and semi-arid
regions where the rainfall amount and distribution is
insufficient.
 Irrigation water requirement may be defined as the
amount of irrigation water, in addition to rainfall, ground
water contribution and available soil moisture that must
be applied to meet crops evapotranspiration needs without
significant reduction in yield.
• Irrigation is of vital importance of orchards and it is
considered to be one of the most critical cultural operations
• Since soil acts as the reservoir of water and since the water
holding capacity differs considerably among different soil
types, the irrigation requirement also varies greatly from place
to place
– The coarse- textured sand or sandy loam soils store less
water and hence in such soils more frequent irrigation is
required
– In fine –textured clayey or silty soil, on the other hand, more
water is required to wet but the frequency of irrigation
should be less
• In addition to soil type, irrigation requirement will depend on
the species, rootstock, age, bearing capacity, topography, water
table position, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, temperature, etc.
 The principal components of crop water requirement include:
Weather parameters
Crop factors
Soil factors and
Management and environmental conditions.
 The amount of water to be applied is based on the rate of ET
and thus require estimation of this rate.
 Good irrigation consists of appropriate irrigation scheduling
 Irrigation scheduling is the process by which an irrigator/farmer
determines the timing and quantity of water to be applied to the
crops
 is an activity of optimum water supply for crop
productivity, by managing soil water close to the field
capacity or within a limited allowable depletion level.
Practical methods for evaluating soil moisture
– Various systems can be used to evaluate the
soil moisture
– Important facts Know the rooting depth
(make profile pit)
Tensiometers
“Feeling the soil” Take soil sample in
hand and squeeze it
Soil moisture indicators for the
“FEEL TEST”
 Evaluating soil moisture

Most of feeder roots are in top soil

Plant extraction of water is 40% from the top 25% of rooting zone
 Types of irrigation
• Full surface wetting
– Flood systems
• Cover total soil area
• Furrow
– Overhead sprinkler systems
– Micro jets
• Concentrated wetting
– Drip systems
Flood irrigation – full surface

200 m³/hour/ha
Flood irrigation - furrow
Overhead sprinkler
80-100 m³/hour/ha
Micro sprinkler
60-70 m³/hour/ha
 Drip irrigation
10-20 m³/hour/ha
The choice of each method of irrigation
application is governed by:
Method of delivery of the water
Size of stream or duration of flow
Topography and slope of the land
Soil characteristics
Cost of irrigation
 Water penetration time
• Rate of water infiltration depends on soil type
and volume of water applied
• Flood irrigation examples
–Sand: 300-400 mm per hour
–Loam: 150-250 mm per hour
–Clay: 30-50 mm per hour
 How long to irrigate?
• Length of time of flood irrigation depends on:
– Strength of water current from canal
– Length of furrow
– Width of furrow
– Rooting depth (depth of water penetration)
– Infiltration time to required depth
– Water losses through evaporation, drainage, etc

• If the above information is not available it will be very

difficult to determine the correct time of an irrigation
• Practical answer is to apply irrigation and to make a profile
pit to determine the depth of wetting after 2 days
 When to irrigate?
• Depends on:
– Physiological stage
– Soil type (water holding capacity)
– Climate (temperature, relative humidity, wind)
– Type of irrigation (flood, sprinkler, drip)
– Water quality
– Most important -
• Availability of water (how much and when
available)
• Experience
3.8. Fertilization
 The purpose is to supply essential elements in the soil to increase
the return
 Type and amount of nutrients required are a function of soil
type, growing region and crop load
In regions with high rainfall and temperature - nutrients are
lost from the soil due to leaching or volatilization hence
supplemental application is required.
 Generally the following approaches can be considered: -
Growers experience
Using programs of successful growers in the area as models
Replacing amounts of nutrients removed in the fruit
Symptomatology
Survey and field experiments
Soil and leaf analysis
Determination of fertilizer requirement
• Nutrient availability and requirement depend on many factors such as species and
cultivar, soil fertility, soil type, extent of leaching of nutrients, soil erosion, rainfall,
temperature, etc.

• Judicious fertilizer for different locations can thus be worked out only through
location-based nutritional trials coupled with continuous determination of soil and
leaf nutrient status

• Soil analysis: the existing fertility of the soil should first be determined before
fertilization
• Plant tissue analysis: Like many other crops, leaf has been found to be the most
satisfactory diagnostic tool to analyze the nutrient status of citrus trees
• Leaf analysis is also important for determination of optimum fertilizer rates and for
assisting in the interpretation of fertilizer trial results

• In Ethiopia, particularly at Awara Melka farm of Upper Awash Agro Industry

Enterprise, DAP and Urea are applied at the rates of 1.3 q/ha and 5.4 q/ha,
respectively. Urea is applied three times: DAP once at the beginning of the rainy
season.
Compost and manure
 Provide OM which improves the structure of the soil, soil infiltration
and enrich the soil with microorganisms.
– But the problem is that they require intensive labor for preparation &
application and are also required in larger amount.

 The main advantage of chemical fertilizer is that it has a high nutrient

content
– (for example, almost half the weight of urea is nitrogen, whereas buffalo
manure has about 2% nitrogen).
• So, you only need to apply kilograms of chemical fertilizer per hectare
instead of tons per hectare of manure or compost.
• For this reason, chemical fertilizer is easy to transport & apply.

 But the disadvantage is, chemical fertilizer does not provide any
organic matter to your soil.
 Cont…

 The best strategy for farmers probably is to use all

three (chemical fertilizer, manure, and compost), to
benefit from the advantages of each.
o How much fertilizer should you use?
During the seedling stage, plants need less chemical
fertilizer than in later growth stages.
 Apply as much manure and compost as possible
– In practice, the amount will depend on your supply &
on how much labor you have available.
– For most farmers, both animal manure and compost are
available only in small amounts.
– Further, both are heavy, and therefore requiring a lot of
labor to carry uphill and apply.
What method should you use to apply fertilizers? …
 For young plants, fertilizer should be applied in a ring
around each plant, but not touching the stem.

 Some experts recommend burying fertilizer in the soil to

reduce losses from run-off.
– But, this requires more labor, and
– some studies show that burying fertilizer does not
increase absorption by the plant.

 If you do bury fertilizer,

• be careful not to damage the delicate feeder roots
that are concentrated in the top few centimeters of
the soil.
3.9. Training and pruning
 Training:- physical techniques that control size, shape
and directions of plant growth
Orientation of plants in space
Providing support on which plants may grow
May include twisting, fastening or bending of the plant
to supporting structure
 Pruning:- judicious removal of plant parts
 Management of plant growth entails removing excessive
and undesirable growth and structures, by cutting, a
procedure called pruning
 Generally, the objective of changing the spatial
form or size of a plant is:
To improve its appearance and usefulness
To establish a balance between vegetative and fruit
bearing
To increase efficiency of light utilization
To facilitate orchard operation
To control disease and pest
To enhance productiveness of plants and the quality of
the produce
 Pruning types are recognized as:
1. Frame: best formed in a nursery
2. Maintenance: to preserve the plants status
3. Rejuvenation: to bring back declining trees in to
production
 In humid tropics pruning may take place at any time
preferably after harvest.
 In deciduous tree, at dormant time (when leaves have
fallen)
 Use good equipment and disinfect it
 Make small, smooth and sloping cuts
 Treat large wounds with a covering material
3.10. Control of pests
 For successful crop production of fruit crops, all
agronomic and legal means should be used to protect the
crop against injury.
 Injury:- every change leading to lower quality of the
desired product.
Causes of injury:- abiotic (non-living) and biotic
(living)
 Abiotic:- drought and inundation/flood, storms,
deficiency and excess of elements, salinity, chemicals etc..
 Biotic:- fungi, bacteria, viruses, insects and mites,
nematodes
Rats, birds, weeds, and parasitic plants
Control measures:
Legislation: quarantine law
Sanitation: eradication, disinfection, rotation

Resistance: use of resistance or tolerance cultivars

Mechanical means: hand picking, banding
Biological means: predators and parasites
Chemical means: spraying, dusting
Integration: a combination of all => IPM
3.11. Harvesting, post harvest Handling and
Marketing of fruit crops

1.Harvesting
2.Postharvest handling (grading, storage, etc)
3.Transportation and Marketing
Harvesting and post harvest handling of fruits
Harvesting of fruits
 There are distinct terms for different stages in fruit
development
 Maturity: the stage at which a commodity has reached a
sufficient stages of development that after harvesting and
postharvest handling, its quality will be at least the minimum
acceptable to ultimate consumer.
 When considering perishable commodities, there are two
types of maturity.
Physiological maturity: - maximum growth & maturation
has occurred and the plant part will continue ontogeny even
if detached from the mother plant.
Horticultural maturity: - the stage of development when
a plant or plant part possesses a prerequisite for utilization
by the consumer for a particular purposes.
 Horticultural maturity may occur at any stage during
development or senescence e.g. Inflorescence –
Cauliflower
Therefore, harvestable maturity can occur throughout
the developmental cycle with the precise time varying
with the product in question.
Optimum harvest maturity is not a fixed point and
varies depending on the criteria utilized to determine it.
 How do we determine when the harvestable maturity
has been reached?
With most crops, optimum maturity is determined by
specific physical and /or chemical characteristics of the
plants or plant parts to be harvested.
Method for measurement of maturity
Physical measurements
 Physical attributes such as size, color, or shapes
 This can be made either subjectively (sensory evaluation)
or objectively (numerical measurement of maturity)
 Horticultural (commercial) maturity- requires
measurements of some characteristics known to change as
the fruit or vegetable matures.
 Calendar date (based on flowering or planting) –
experienced growers
Only reliable when the seasonal climate are more or
less uniform from year to year
Commodity shape and size e.g. banana (some cultivars
become less angular in cross section)
 Objective or analytical measurements of maturity are tend
to be highly consistent.
 Fresh firmness – dissolution of middle lamella of the cell wall
resulting in softening
Can be estimated by finger or thumb pressure or by using
pressure tests
 Optical measurements – color changes
 Respiratory behavior – in climacteric fruits
 Heat units – is an objective measure of the time required for
the development of a fruit to maturity after flowering in a
particular environment.
– It also measures degree days – thus, under usually warm
conditions, maturity will be advanced and under cooler
conditions delayed.
 Minimum juice volume
Chemical measurements
 Many plant products undergo distinct chemical alterations
that are correlated with maturity.
 Either objective or subjective measure of these changes
can be used
Conversion of starch to sugar

Harvesting date
 Has a direct impact on the post harvest life of a produce
 It can be determined by the maturity indices prepared to
the produce to that particular area.
 For many crops harvesting must proceed within a
certain narrow time interval.
 In some spps, however, fruits may be stored well on the
tree for several days or weeks.
There are also some contradicting factors. e.g. in apple,
storage quality is adversely affected by delaying maturity,
yet on the other hand, red color tend to increase with time.
 There are external and internal signs of ripening that aid
for harvesting the produce.
The fruit becomes bigger until reaches full size
The acid content goes down
Starch is converted to sugar
The green color disappears, other color become visible
Flesh get softer
The aroma and taste develops
Harvesting methods
 Hand harvesting:- (picking, pulling)
 Used for harvesting high value crops that either sensitive
to bruising or must be selectively picked. E.g. strawberry
 Semi-mechanized or completely mechanized harvesting
(clipping, shaking)
 Fruits dropped to the ground and collected by rakes and
pick up machines with revolving brush sweeps.
 Fruit dropped on a padded catching frame (may be suited
for fresh market)
 Require machine compatible plants-ripen at the same time
and become uniform, resist excessive bruising.
Post harvest handling of fruit
Post harvest physiology of fruits affecting their shelf life
 Harvested fruits are still living organs.
 They continue to respire and lose water as if they were
still attached to the parent plant.
however, losses are not replaced in the postharvest
environment.
 This metabolic process continues until a stage of over-
ripeness is reached.
 A number of physiological and biochemical process occur
during the post harvest life of a produce.
 This process may result in deterioration of the produce or
improvements (in climacteric fruit).
 Hence, the major objective of post harvest physiology
and technology is:
The development of the information (physiology) and
methods (technology needed to maximize the duration
of the period between ripening and deterioration) to
maintain the product as close to harvest condition as
possible.

 Since death causes irreversible processes thus, the

produce should be maintained in a living state.

 Otherwise, these changes may involve gross deterioration

and drastic difference in flavor, texture and appearance.
 Changes that occur in harvested produce
Change Process Significance

Unattractive appearance, texture

Transpiration & change, loss, shriveling,
Water loss evaporation (detrimental)

CH2O conversion Enzymatic Starch to sugar (beneficial)

Change in flavor Enzymatic Usually detrimental

Softening Enzymatic Usually detrimental

Change in color Pigment synthesis May be detrimental or beneficial

Change in
vitamins Enzymatic May be gain or loss
Pathological ;
Decay and rot physiological Detrimental
Environmental factors affecting post harvest physiology
of fruits.
 Temperature, humidity, CO2 and O2 levels and ethylene
concentration are the major environmental factors that
influence the post harvest life of horticultural products.

 Life of harvested produce can be prolonged to some

extent by:
Slowing down respiration rate by control of
temperature, CO2 and O2
Retarding microbial activity
Preventing or reducing water loss
Temperature
 The optimum storage temperature varies from species to species.
 Most tropical fruits store well at 100C (+) low temperature causes
chilling injury
 Chilling injury affects the appearance of the produce by causing
tissue breakdown.
 A slight increase in temperature hastens ripening since it increases
ethylene production
 The activity of enzymes in harvested produce declines at
temperatures above 300C.
 When a produce is held above 350C, metabolism becomes abnormal
and results in breakdown of membrane integrity and structure
causing rapid deterioration of the produce.
 This causes loss of pigment and watery or translucent appearance of
the tissue.
 This condition in banana and tomato is often referred as boiled.
Humidity
 Low humidity results in water loss that cause desiccation
and wilting.
 High humidity favors the development of decay, especially
if temperature is high.
 Even in the absence of visible wilting water loss can result
in reduced crispness and or early ripening of some fruits.
 Undesirable changes in color, palatability and nutritional
quality.
 Hence humidity control has become an important feature
of modern storage facilities.
 For most fruits 85-90% is best.
CO2 and O2 levels
 The general equation for produce respiration is:
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy

 Hence, respiration could be slowed by limiting oxygen or

by raising CO2 concentration in the storage.
 When oxygen is exhausted anaerobic respiration begins
and alcohol is formed in the fruit.
 Before this occurs, oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentration should be kept at a compensating levels.
 O2 level can be reduced by wrapping harvested products
using polythene film, since polythene film is about 5
times more permeable to CO2 than O2

 Increasing density and thickness of the film helps to

regulate the concentration of the two gases.

 If respiration rate is reduced through the control of the

control O2 and CO2 levels storage temperature can be
kept higher than normally recommended.
Ethylene (C2H4)
 Regulate many aspects of plant growth, development and
senescence
 Depending on where and when it occurs, it may be
beneficial or harmful to harvested crops.

 Ethylene gas is commercially used;

In banana ripening rooms to produce uniform ripening
or to accelerate ripening.
For de-greening of citrus fruits which fail to produce
natural orange color.
 Increased ethylene production results from field
infestation, bruising, raised storage temperature and RH
 Important effects of ethylene in hastening the
deterioration of perishable commodities include:
Accelerated senescence and loss of green color in
some harvested products (in leafy vegetables)
Accelerated ripening of fruits during handling and
storage
Russet spotting in lettuce
Sprouting of potatoes.
Abscissions of leaves in cauliflower, cabbage etc..
Decreased storage life and reduced quality of fruits,
vegetables and flowers.
Control of ethylene effects
A. Ethylene exclusion and removal
 Elimination of ethylene source
 Ventilation
 Waxing and wrapping of produces.

B. Inhibition of the effects of ethylene

 Use of controlled atmosphere storage.
 Use of specific anti-ethylene compounds that inhibit
the action of ethylene.
Methods of handling fruits.
A. Grading
 The process of assigning products to categories according
to predetermined standards
 Grouping the produce on the basis of some standards to
eliminate unsatisfactory items.
 This reduces variability which has an impact on aesthetic
value.
 Produces can be graded by cultivar, size, appearance and
when possible by quality.
 Grading is the basis of long distance trade.
 Both seller and consumer can understand each other.
B. Packaging
 Has a significant effect in reducing wastage
 Reduces mechanical damage, undesirable physiological
changes and pathological deterioration during storage,
transportation and marketing.
 Provides protection, convenience, economy and appeal

 Two main functions of packaging are;

To assemble the produce in to convenient units for
handling (utilization)
To protect the produce during distribution, storage and
marketing.
C. Pre-cooling
 Refers to rapid removal of heat from freshly harvested
products in order to slow down ripening and reduce
deterioration prior to storage or shipment.
 Internal temperature of harvested produce on hot day
may be about 100C higher than the air temperature.
 The removal of field heat, to reduce the temperature of
harvested produce to 0-40C must be as rapid as possible.
Consequently, a great deal of energy is required.
 Hence, harvesting is done at night or early in the morning
to avoid excessive field heat and related expenses in
removing it.
Methods of pre-cooling
 Contact icing- crushed ice is placed in or on the package
 Hydro cooling- water flows through the container and
absorbs heat
 Vacuum cooling- utilizes rapid evaporation of water at
reduced pressure.
 Air cooling- circulation of cold air
D. Storage and preservation
 Horticultural crops such as fruits have a continues
demand. Thus, in order to ensure extended supply storage
is essential.
 Extending supply of harvested produce require retarding
the natural physiological deterioration as well as
preventing decay by micro-organisms.
 The methods of choosing different storage’s depends on
the product, its use and the required storage time.
Types of storage’s
A. Common storage’s
 Caves, mounds, trenches etc…
 Used in places where temperature is low
 Temperature is regulated by natural air circulation
B. Cold storage’s
 Temperature and RH are regulated by refrigeration
 Large structures will be with better insulation can built
C. Controlled and modified atmosphere storage
 The level of oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature and
RH are controlled.
 Provides overall reduction in qualitative and quantitative
losses.
Processing
 Long term preservation achieved by physical and
chemical processes
Sterilizing the food or
Avoids the growth of micro-organisms
 This includes drying, canning, freezing, fermenting,
pickling, sugar concentrates and chemical preservatives.
Drying
Removal of water from the tissue
Deterioration by respiration is stopped because of
enzymes inactivation
Decay is prohibited (microbial activity is ceased)
Sun drying or artificial drying
Canning (thermal preservation)
 Sterilizing food by heating on airtight container
 The heat destroys human pathogenic and food spoiling
microorganisms.
 It also inactivate enzymes that may decompose the
product during storage.
 Heat may affect color, texture and nutritive values
 Cost of glass or metal container sometimes exceed the
cost of food they contain and are sometimes
uneconomical.
 Its use is limited to few products
Fermentation
 Fermentation involves bacteria that decompose
carbohydrates anaerobically.
 Anaerobic decomposition of food by certain bacteria and
yeast.
 The end product could be (depending on the type of
organism, the produce and the fermentation process).
 Some of these fermentation products create conditions
unfavorable to microorganisms, including the original one.
 They act as preservative by retarding enzymatic
deterioration
 Certain fruit juice are deliberately fermented to produce
alcoholic beverage (e.g. grape juice becomes wine)
 When use in combination with salting it is called pickling.
Pickling
 Fermentation of produce in a high concentration salt.
 Pickling may be accomplished by placing food in
organic acids (vinegar, citric acid)
 Pickled products are usually canned, to inactivate
activities of enzymes.
 Vinegar – acid liquor (made from malt, wine, etc..) used
in flavoring food and for pickling.
 Vegetables that are pickled include cucumber, onion,
cauliflower, and tomato.
Sugar concentrates
 Fruits concentrated with at least 45-65% of their weight with
sugar can be preserved with mild heat treatment if protected
from air
 High sugar and low water content preserves the food. The
sugar increases the osmotic pressure to a degree that prohibits
microbial activity and thereby reduce spoilage opportunities.
 Sugar may be added to attain the required concentration of
food. Then product may be called;
Jelly- made from fruit juice (juice boiled with sugar)
Jam – made from concentrated fruit (fruit boiled and
preserved in sugar)
Preserves – made from whole fruit – boiled in sugar
Marmalade – made from citrus fruit and rind.
Chemical preservatives
 In addition to natural preservatives such as salt, vinegar,
and spices a number of chemicals are used to preserve
fruits and vegetables;
These include:
 Sulfur dioxide, chlorine, benzoic acid etc…
 Are also used in conjunction with other methods of
preservation
 The public is not interested in their use.
The end