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Basis of Commercial Banking
Basis of Commercial Banking
8
The Economics of Banking
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
Bank capital The difference between the value of a bank’s assets and the
value of its liabilities; also called shareholders’ equity.
Checkable Deposits
Checkable deposits Accounts against which depositors can write checks, also
called transaction deposits.
Reserves A bank asset consisting of vault cash plus bank deposits with the
Federal Reserve.
Vault cash Cash on hand in a bank; includes currency in ATMs and deposits
with other banks.
Excess reserves Any reserves banks hold above those necessary to meet
reserve requirements.
• Bank capital, also called shareholders’ equity, or bank net worth, is the
difference between the value of a bank’s assets and the value of its
liabilities.
• In 2010, for the U.S. banking system as a whole, bank capital was about
12% of bank assets.
• A bank’s capital equals the funds contributed by the bank’s shareholders
through their purchases of stock the bank has issued plus accumulated
retained profits.
• Note that as the value of a bank’s assets or liabilities changes, so does the
value of the bank’s capital.
a. Use the entries to construct a balance sheet similar to the one in Table 10.1,
with assets on the left side of the balance sheet and liabilities and bank
capital on the right side.
b. The bank’s capital is what percentage of its assets?
The Basics of Commercial Banking: The Bank Balance Sheet
Solved Problem 8.1
Constructing a Bank Balance Sheet
Solving the Problem
Step 1 Review the lesson material.
Step 2 Answer part (a) by using the entries to construct the bank’s balance
sheet, remembering that bank capital is equal to the value of assets
minus the value of liabilities.
In this example, Wells Fargo uses its excess reserves to buy Treasury bills
worth $30 and make a loan worth $60.
The Basic Operations of a Commercial Bank
Making the Connection
The Not-So-Simple Relationship between Loan Losses and Bank Profits
• During the term of the loan, if the bank decides that the borrower is likely to
default, the bank must write down or write off the loan.
• Banks set aside part of their capital as a loan loss reserve to anticipate
future loan losses and avoid large swings in its reported profits and capital
from write-offs.
• During the financial crisis of 2007–2009, banks set aside enormous loan loss
reserves as they anticipated write-downs on mortgage-related loans.
• The SEC has argued that banks will sometimes increase their loan loss
reserves more than is justified during an economic expansion, when defaults
are relatively rare. The banks can then draw down the reserves during a
recession, evening out their reported profits.
• If true, this practice would amount to “earnings management,” which is
prohibited under accounting rules because it may give a misleading view of
the firm’s profits.
Net interest margin The difference between the interest a bank receives on its
securities and loans and the interest it pays on deposits and debt, divided by
the total value of its earning assets.
• An expression for the bank’s total profits earned per dollar of assets is called
return on assets.
Return on assets (ROA) The ratio of the value of a bank’s after-tax profit to
the value of its assets.
Return on equity (ROE) The ratio of the value of a bank’s after-tax profit to the
value of its capital.
• ROA and ROE are related by the ratio of a bank’s assets to its capital:
Bank leverage The ratio of the value of a bank’s assets to the value of its
capital, the inverse of which (capital to assets) is called a bank’s leverage
ratio.
Liquidity risk The possibility that a bank may not be able to meet its cash
needs by selling assets or raising funds at a reasonable cost.
• Banks reduce liquidity risk through strategies of asset management and
liquidity management.
• Asset management involves lending funds in the federal funds market,
usually for one day at a time.
• A second option is to use reverse repurchase agreements, which involve a
bank buying Treasury securities owned by a business or another bank while
at the same time agreeing to sell the securities back at a later date, often the
next morning. These very short term loans can be used to meet deposit
withdrawals.
• Liability management involves determining the best mix of borrowings from
other banks or businesses using repurchase agreements or from the Fed by
taking out discount loans.
• By diversifying, banks can reduce the credit risk associated with lending too
much to a single borrower, region, or industry.
Credit-Risk Analysis
Credit-risk analysis The process that bank loan officers use to screen loan
applicants.
Prime rate Formerly, the interest rate banks charged on six-month loans to
high-quality borrowers; currently, an interest rate banks charge primarily to
smaller borrowers.
Managing Bank Risk
Collateral
• Collateral, or assets pledged to the bank in the event that the borrower
defaults, is used to reduce adverse selection.
• A compensating balance is a required minimum amount that the business
taking out the loan must maintain in a checking account with the lending
bank.
Credit Rationing
Credit rationing The restriction of credit by lenders such that borrowers cannot
obtain the funds they desire at the given interest rate.
• Loan and credit limits reduce moral hazard by increasing the chance a
borrower will repay.
• If the bank cannot distinguish the low- from the high-risk borrowers, high
interest rates risk dropping the low-risk borrowers out of the loan pool,
leaving only the high-risk borrowers—a case of adverse selection.
Managing Bank Risk
Monitoring and Restrictive Covenants
A rise (fall) in the market interest rate will lower (increase) the present value
of a bank’s assets and liabilities.
Gap analysis An analysis of the difference, or gap, between the dollar value of
a bank’s variable-rate assets and the dollar value of its variable-rate liabilities.
• If a bank has a positive duration gap, the duration of the bank’s assets is
greater than the duration of the bank’s liabilities. In this case, an increase in
market interest rates will reduce the value of the bank’s assets more than the
value of the bank’s liabilities, which will decrease the bank’s capital.