1

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS

By; Yitbarek wasihun (BSc, MPH, PhD Fellow)

yitbarek2003@gmail.com
 Learning Objectives

 After completing this course, students will be able to:

• Discuss the characteristics, and applications of qualitative research
• Master the skills of collecting, analyzing and reporting qualitative data
• Describe what mixed research mean and how it would be applicable in
practice
• Describe what are the d/t types of qualitative research designs and
discuss their applications
• Familiar with the different types of qualitative data collection methods
• Trustworthiness of qualitative research
• Understand and apply (Atlas Ti) software for qualitative data analysis
 Brainstorming
3

What is Research?

What is Health Research?

What are the importance of Scientific research?

What are the characteristics of research?

What is a research problem?

What are the conditions exist for a potential research situation?

What are Sources of Research Problem?

 What is Research?
4

 Research is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of

data to generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or
solve a problem
 The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
 Research = Re + Search
 ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out
something

 Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable

 Health research
5

 Health Research:- likewise, is a research effort to address health

related problems and come up with better solutions to mitigate the
prevailing problem.

✓ Health research is the process of obtaining systematic

knowledge and technology which can be used for the
improvement of the health of individual groups

Wollo univerisity, Dessie 11/30/2022

 Importance of Scientific research
6

In our efforts to maintain health and combating diseases.

Research helps us create new knowledge and develop proper tools

for the use of existing knowledge.

Not only does it enable health care providers to diagnose and

treat diseases,

research also provides evidence for policies and decisions on

health and development.

Wollo univerisity, Dessie 11/30/2022

 The Five key Characteristics of Research:
7

1. Systematic – research process

2. Logical – induction/deduction

3. Empirical – evidence based

4. Reductive – generalisation

5. Replicable – methodology.

Wollo univerisity, Dessie 11/30/2022

 Research Process…

8
 Types of research

Classification of Research based on the application of Research

1. Basic research:
2. Applied research:
 Types of research…
10

 Basic research is necessary to generate new knowledge and technologies

to deal with major unresolved health problems.

 The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research.
 Applied research is necessary to identify priority problems and to design
and evaluate policies and programs that will deliver the greatest health

benefit, making optimal use of available resources

Wollo univerisity, Dessie 11/30/2022

 What is a Research Problem/s?

 A situation that needs a solution and for which there are possible
solutions.
 May be described as
 an incongruence; a discrepancy between what is and what ought
to be.
 the gap in knowledge that needs to be filled.
 All research is set in motion by the existence of a problem.
 a research problem …

 A potential research situation arises when three

conditions exist:
1. A perceived discrepancy exists between what is and what
should be.
2. A question exists about why there is a discrepancy.
3. At least two possible and plausible answers exist to the
question.
Sources of Research Problem

Consultati
Personal
on with Experience
experts
Exposure to Practical
field Experienc
situations e
Sources
Critical
of
Folklores Appraisal of
Research literature
Problem
Intuition
Previous
Research
Brain Existing
storming Social theories
Issues
 Criteria of selection of research topic

• Objective criteria

1. Relevance: priority, magnitude of problem

2. Avoidance of duplication
3. Feasibility: complexity, manpower, time, equipment, money…

4. Political commitment: interest and support to utilize results

5. Applicability (cost-effectiveness): availability of resources
6. Timeliness: urgency of data needed for making decision

7. Ethical acceptability
 Scales for rating research topics

1. Relevance
1= not relevant
2= relevant
3= very relevant
2. Avoidance of duplication
1= sufficient information already available
2= some information available but major issues not covered
3= no sound information available
3.Ethical acceptability
1= major ethical problems
2= minor ethical problems
3= no ethical problems
 Scales cont…

4.Timeliness (urgency)
1= information not urgently needed
2= information could be used right away but a delay of some
months could be acceptable
3= data very urgently needed for decision making
5.Political acceptability
1= topic not acceptable to high level policy makers
2= topic more or less acceptable
3= topic fully acceptable
 Scales cont…

7.Feasibility
1= study not feasible, considering available resources
2= study feasible, considering available resources
3= study very feasible, considering available resources
7.Applicability
1= no chance of recommendations being implemented
2= some chance of recommendations being implemented
3= good chance of recommendations being implemented
 Summary of the scales

Topic Rele Avoidance of Feasi Political Applic Timelin Ethical Total

vanc duplication bility commitme ability ess accepta score
e nt bility
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Topic 4
 Activity
 Identify 2 research problem(s) from any source
 Prioritize these problems
 Articulate the topics
20

Introduction to Qualitative Research

 Brainstorming
21

What is qualitative research?

Why would you use a qualitative method?

List characteristics of qualitative research?

When is qualitative approach needed?

 What is qualitative research?

 All are somehow right

 All are somehow wrong
 Nobody was able to describe the entire reality
22
 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

23

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-

numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts,
opinions, or experiences.

It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate

new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally

specific information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and
social contexts of particular populations.
 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

24

Aims to elicit the individual contextualized understanding of a

problem

Achieved through designs that minimize researcher manipulation

of social setting

Close interaction with subjects

Meaning and interpretation cannot be dealt with statistically

 WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

25

Human behaviours is significantly influenced by the setting in

which it occurs
More valid results based on research experiences.
Nature of research problems some problems lend more to
qualitative research
Helps to understand what lies behind any phenomenon about
which little is known
It helps in identifying variables important to the phenomenon
under study
To understand the perceptions and experiences of participants and
community
 When is qualitative approach needed?

26

 …little is known or present understanding is inadequate

 …learn from participants about their experiences (beliefs,
motivations, opinions, practices…)
 …construct a theory from data
 …understand phenomena deeply and in detail
 Qualitative Research Question Examples

27

How does social media shape body image in teenagers?

How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the

Ethiopia?

What factors influence employee retention in a large

organization?

How is anxiety experienced around the world?

How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Qualitative Research Purpose

Understan
Describe d

Explain Identify
 QR can help identify factors of interest for further
study or intervention
29

Problem: low levels of medication adherence among people with

T2DM.

Qual study: How do patients with T2DM manage their

medications? What barriers and facilitators do they experience?

Intervention: Designed to alleviate particular barriers

Further Study: Assessing the prevalence of particular barriers

 Scenarios where qualitative research could help
30

1. An NGO has distributed bed nets to villagers, but it appears that

they are not being used.
(Household interviews might help the NGO understand how beliefs
about efficacy, family circumstances or household priorities impact on
usage patterns.)
2. 2. Few women have attended a new service of VCT for HIV in
your clinic.
(In-depth interviews with health professionals and local women
would help understand the barriers to use)
 Scenarios where qualitative research could help…
31

3. You are planning a health promotion campaign about hand

washing, to reduce diarrhoeal disease in a refugee camp.

( Before designing the campaign, it would be useful to interview

residents to find out their current beliefs and practices around hand
washing, so your information ‘makes sense’ with in their
understanding)
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
32

1.The Natural Setting

 Qualitative researchers must physically go to the people, site,
institution, or field

2.The Researcher as Instrument

 Build trust, rapport, and credibility with subjects

3.Emergent Approach
 Research question may change or be refined as researcher learns
more about subject under investigation
 Characteristics…
33

4.Interpretive Approach
 Method for interpreting indirect meaning and a reflective practice
for unmasking hidden meaning beneath apparent meaning

5.A Holistic View

 Broad studies rather than microanalysis or focusing on the
relationship between independent and dependent variables
 Characteristics…
34

6.Reflexivity and Subjectivity

 Reflexivity – systematic reflection on how personal
assumptions, biases, and values shape a study

7.Use of Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

 Inductive reasoning (from specific to broad) is more prevalent,
but deductive reasoning (from broad to specific) can be
appropriate
 Characteristics…
35

8.Strategies of Inquiry
 Use multiple strategies
 Mixed-method – combination of both quantitative and
qualitative research methods
 Brainstorming
36

Examples of topics &Questions that qualitative

methodologies can address
 Qualitative research...
37

Examples of topics that qualitative methodologies can address include:

 “What are the factors that influence a graduate students’

experience in an online research methods course?”
 People’s experiences of health needs, health care, accessing care and keeping
healthy.
 How experiences, attitudes and life circumstances affect health needs and
behaviors of a certain population.
 Example….
38
 Qualitative Research
39

¨ Questions like:

How do adolescents experience reproductive health services?

How do adolescents try to reduce their risk of pregnancy or STIs or
HIV/AIDS?
Why do health workers die from AIDS while they know its mode of
transmission and preventive measures?
What are the different types of family planning methods that you know?
¨ Ask WHY & HOW questions in different ways.
¨ Generates more refined questions in the field.
 Brainstorming
40

What are the major difference b/ne Qualitative and Quantitative

Research??

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of qualitative

research??
 Basic differences between quantitative and qualitative
research methods
41

 Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ primarily in:

 Their analytical objectives
 The types of questions they pose
 The types of data collection instruments they use
 The forms of data they produce
 The degree of flexibility built into study design
 Qualitative Research Vs Quantitative Research
42
 Qualitative and quantitative research
Approach
43 Quantitative Objectivist Qualitative Interpretivist/Constructivist
approach
Common research tools Statistical analysis; surveys Interviews and focus groups;
participant/non-participant observations;
video/photo/virtual observations;
documentary analysis
Fundamental questions What? Why (causal)? How? Why (explanation)?
Underlying approach Experimental Naturalistic; exploratory
Researcher stance Detached stance Situated, involved stance
Sampling techniques Random Purposive; theoretical
Research context Excluded Central importance
Data analysis Deductive Inductive
Quality criteria Internal and external Trustworthiness and dependability;
validity; reliability; credibility;
statistical significance
Researchers’ values Excluded (influence Included (formative)
denied)
 Advantages of qualitative research
44

Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

• The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or

patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

• Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

• Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can

be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

• Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems

or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

 Disadvantages of qualitative research

45

Qualitative research suffers from:

Subjectivity
 Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative

research cannot be replicated. The researcher decides what is important and what is
irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.
Limited generalizability
 Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts.

Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable

 conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider 
population.
Labor-intensive
 Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data

analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

46

Applications of Qualitative Research

(What are the applications of Qualitative Research ?)

 Applications of Qualitative Research
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1.An idea generation tool

 To develop new ideas for the communications strategy
 To explore how messages are perceived by audience E.g.
posters for advertisement
 cont’d
48

2.A preliminary step to aid in the development of a quantitative study

 To develop hypothesis about the thought & decision-

making processes of the target population on certain issues
 To help identify the types of people to be interviewed in
the quantitative study
 To decide wording & sequencing of questions
 cont’d
49

3. As a follow – up of the results of a quantitative study

 Clarify unexpected finding
 Understand why some behaviors wanes(decline)
 Describe most important factors affecting attitude change
cont’d
50

4. The primary data collection method

 Some studies are not fitting for quantitative design

E.g. Perceptions, preferences, experiences and beliefs people have

51

Mixed Research Methods

(What is Mixed Research Methods)
(What are the Rationales for Mixed Methods)
 Mixed Methods Research

52

 As defined by Tashakkori and Creswell (2007 p 4) as ‘research in

which the investigator collects and analyses data, integrates the
findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and
quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or a program
of inquiry’.
 Mixed methods research allows us to triangulate findings,
which can strengthen validity and increase the utility of our
work.
 Mixed Methods Research

53

 A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting,

analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research
and methods in a single study to understand a research problem
 If you have collected both quantitative and qualitative data you should
compare and contrast these findings when interpreting your work.
 Mixed methods research question examples
54

 To what extent does the frequency of traffic accidents (quantitative) reflect

cyclist perceptions of road safety (qualitative) in Amsterdam?
 How do student perceptions of their school environment (qualitative) relate to
differences in test scores (quantitative)?
 How do interviews about job satisfaction at Company X (qualitative) help
explain year-over-year sales performance and other KPIs (quantitative)?
 How can voter and non-voter beliefs about democracy (qualitative) help
explain election turnout patterns (quantitative) in Town X?
 How do average hospital salary measurements over time (quantitative) help to
explain nurse testimonials about job satisfaction (qualitative)?
 Mixed methods and triangulation…

55

 Quantitative research can describe magnitude and distribution

of change, whereas
 Qualitative research gives an in-depth understanding of the
social, political and cultural context.
 Triangulation can bring strength to our conclusions or identify
areas for further work.
 What can we use Mixed Method Research For?

56
 Why do we use Mixed Methods Research?

57

 According to Greene, et al. (1989), there are five

primary purposes for mixing methods in research:
 Triangulation

58
 Triangulation…
59

It can be classified into four types:

 Data triangulation – using a variety of data sources in a study,

which can help offset possible unrepresentative data

 Methodological Triangulation – using a variety of data collection
methods (surveys, interviews, case studies), which can give the
researcher richer data
 Investigator Triangulation – involving multiple researchers in a
study, which can help to offset researcher biases in research design
 Theory Triangulation – applying multiple theoretical perspectives
to data, which can yield analyses and approaches that reveal
alternative explanations
 When should we use Mixed Method Research?

60

 When both quantitative and qualitative data, together, provide a

better understanding of your research problem than either type by
itself
61
 Steps to Approach a Mixed Methods Project
62
63
 Mixed/Complementary Research Approach
64

 For instance, if you want to lobby for better access to health care in an
area where user fees have been introduced, you might first undertake a
cross-sectional survey which will tell you that 16.5% of your population
does not have access to care.
 This is essential information, but you might also have a number of other
questions that the survey can’t answer very well, such as:
 what are people’s experiences of user fees?
 what other barriers exist to accessing health care?
 Typology of Mixed Methods
(All MPH Students)
65
 Types of Mixed Methods Research Methods
Approaches
66
67
68
 Qualitative research designs
69

2: Qualitative Research Designs

(What are the Major five types of Qualitative
Research Designs)
 Second Day Presentation

70

 Describe what grounded theory is and discuss its

application?
 Describe what Phenomenology is and discuss its
application? ?
 Describe what ethnography is and discuss its
application? Describe what case study is and discuss its
application ? Describe what Narrative study is and discuss its
application?
 Qualitative research designs…
71

 Describe what grounded theory is and discuss its application?

 Describe what Phenomenology is?
 Describe what ethnography is?
 Describe what case study is?
 Qualitative research designs…
72

 Five major types of qualitative research design are the most

commonly used. They are:

1.Grounded theory

2.Phenomenology

3.Ethnography

4.Case study

5.Narrative research
 1. Grounded Theory
73

 Developed for health-related topics by Glaser and Strauss (1967)

 Logically consistent set of data collection and analytic procedures
aimed to develop theory
• Start with individual cases, incidents, experiences and develop
progressively more abstract conceptual categories that identify
patterned relationships
 Suitable for studying individual processes, inter-personal relations,
reciprocal effects between individuals and larger social processes
 Grounded Theory
74

Purpose - theory development

Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop

theories inductively.

Method - steps occur simultaneously; a constant comparative

process

Data collection - interview, observation, record review, or

combination
 Grounded Theory…
75

Analysis : concept formation, concept modification & integration

Outcomes - theory supported by examples from data

Cont…
76

A key feature of grounded theory is the simultaneous collection and

analysis of data using a process known as constant comparative
analysis.

 In this process, data are transcribed and examined for content

immediately following data collection.

Ideas which emerge from the analysis are included in data

collection when the researcher next enters the field.
Conceptual model created through GT: O’Brien et al. 2009
77
78
 Ex2.
79

Sexual life and fertility desire in long-term HIV serodiscordant couples in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia: a grounded theory study.
Method : A grounded theory approach was employed using in-depth interviews among 36
informants in ART/PMTCT centers of three public hospitals, a health centre and one PLHIV
association in Addis Ababa. Theoretical sampling was used to recruit 28 clients who lived in a
discordant relationship and eight health care providers as key informants. Data collection and
analysis were undertaken simultaneously using a constant comparison. The analysis was
facilitated using Open Code software.
Results: A grounded theory pertaining to sexual life and desire to have a child among HIV
discordant couples emerged as “maintaining the relationship” as a core category. Couples pass
through a social process of struggle to maintain their relationship. The causal conditions for
couples to enter into the process of struggle to maintain their relationship were collectively
categorized as “Entering in-to a transition” (knowing HIV serostatus) and this includes
mismatch of desire to have a child, controversy on safe sex versus desire to have a child, and
undeniable change in sexual desire and practice through time were the features in entering into-
transition. Then after the transition, couples engaged in certain actions/strategies that are
categorized as “dealing with discordancy” such as entertaining partner’s interest by scarifying
once self interest to maintain their relationship.
80

 GT-Papare.pdf
 2.Phenomenology Study Design
81

Purpose, goal
to describe experiences as they are lived
examines uniqueness of individual's lived situations
each person has own reality; reality is subjective
Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and
interpreting participants’ lived experiences.
Research question development:
What does existence of feeling or experience indicate concerning
the phenomenon to be explored
 Phenomenology Study Design…
82

Method:
No clearly defined steps to avoid limiting creativity of researcher
Sampling & data collection
Seek persons who understand study & are willing to express
inner feelings & experiences
Describe experiences of phenomenon
Write experiences of phenomenon
Direct observation
Audio or videotape
 Typical topics:

83

 Personal (patient) experiences of:

• Chronic disease and treatment of chronic disease (dialysis)
• Death and dying, palliative care
• Mental illness, depression, suicide
• Disability
• Childbirth, breastfeeding, motherhood
• Drug addiction, detoxification
 Health worker experiences of caring for people with chronic
diseases, terminal illness etc.
 Phenomenology Study Design…
84

Data analysis:

Examine experiences beyond human awareness/ or cannot be

communicated

Outcomes:

Findings described from subject's point-of-view

Researcher identifies themes

Structural explanation of findings is developed


 Example: experience of first sexual intercourse

85
86
87

 Phenomonological Paper.pdf
88

3. Ethnography
 Ethnography
89

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep

understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social
dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.
Purpose - to describe a culture's characteristics
Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand
their cultures.
Method- Identify culture, variables for study, & review literature
Data collection - gain entrance to culture; immerse self in culture; acquire
informants; gather data through direct observation & interaction with
subjects
Analysis - describe characteristics of culture
Outcomes - description of culture
 Ethnography….
90

 Ethnographic study involves extended observation of the group

through participant observation—meaning, the researcher
observes the day-to-day life of the members of that group and
also interviews them. The researcher gets “immersed” in that
group.
 The steps of ethnographic research
91

1. Identification of the culture to be studied

2. Identifying significant variables within the culture
3. Literature review
4. Gaining entrance
5. Cultural immersion
6. Acquiring informants
7. Gathering data
8. Analysis of data
9. Description of the culture
10. Theory development
92
93

4.Case study
 Case study

94

 Case study is “a qualitative study in which the investigator explores

a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases)
over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving
multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews,
audio-visual material, and documents and reports), and reports a
case description and case-based themes.” (Creswell, 2005; p. 73)
 Examples of cases studied can be: a particular program, a school,
an individual student, a course, a legal case, an event, etc.
 Case study
95

Purpose - describe in-depth the experience of one person,

family, group, community, or institution

Method-Direct observation and interaction with subject

Analysis - synthesis of experience

Outcomes - in-depth description of the experience

 Cases can be…
96

 An illness episode
 A pregnancy
 A particular event as experienced by many people
 The experience of an organization or program
 Elements of a case study
97

 The problem
 The context
 Chronological presentation
 The “lessons learned”
98
 Case Study: What are the barriers to accessing surgery for
cataracts?1
99

 Although affordable surgery for cataracts is provided by an Eye Care Programme in a rural part of
KwaZulu-Natal, researchers found that uptake was low, and that two-thirds of those who were blind or
sight impaired from cataracts had not had surgery.
 Alan Rotchford and colleagues wanted to understand why elderly people in this area might not take up
surgery. They interviewed 20 people who had been invited for surgery, but did not attend, asking them
about the impact of poor vision on their lives, their beliefs about blindness and its treatment, and views
of surgery.
 The interviews revealed a number of fears about surgery: that it would make vision worse, or might kill
them. Many thought blindness was an inevitable risk of getting older. Most significantly, however, the
interviewees did not share the researchers’ perspectives of blindness as a disability. Living in secure and
predictable environments with extended families, they did not in general see their blindness as a
‘burden’. The impact of sight disability was not as debilitating as it might be in other environments.
 This study illustrates the value of qualitative methods. It identified some beliefs about surgery that were
different from those of professionals, and also some more fundamental reasons why surgery might not
be a priority: i.e. poor eyesight was not as devastating a disability as assumed by the researchers
100

5.Narrative research
 Narrative research
101

Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how

participants perceive and make sense of their experiences
 Qualitative methods approaches: illustrations using
breast cancer
102

Grounded theory The coping strategies adapted by women

while living with breast cancer?

Phenomenology The lived experience women/ commonly

held views about breast cancer?

Ethnography The lived experience of women having

breast cancer in different social contexts?
103

Summary of Qualitative Research Designs

 Characteristics of five Qualitative Approaches/Designs
104
 Characteristics of five Qualitative Approaches/Designs…
105
 Characteristics of five Qualitative Approaches/Designs…
106
 Summary Questions Narrative
107
 Following are examples of research questions for each type of
Phenomenology
approach.
 A study of the life of Mother Theresa.
Grounded
 What is it like to be an inmate in a penitentiary? Theory
 A description of the relationship between a doctorEthnography
and a nurse.
 A study of people living in Argoba.
 The effects of the flipped classroom teaching style on the motivation
Case S
of middle school students in Dessie preparatory school
108

3: Sample Size and Sampling Methods in Qualitative

Research
 Sample size and sampling methods in qualitative research…

109

 Discuss how to determine sample size in qualitative studies

 Describe sampling methods in qualitative studies
 Sample Size
110
 Too small

◦ Does not achieve informational redundancy or theoretical saturation

 Too big

◦ Cannot manage and facilitate the analysis

 Just right!
 Get the most (information) from the least (number of people)
 Sampling
111

 “Participants are not recruited on a representative basis, but

rather because of their expert knowledge of the phenomenon
under inquiry” (Green & Thorogood, 2005)
 Purposeful
 Seeking the best sources of information about the phenomenon
of interest
 Theoretical
 Seeking the best sources of information to confirm /
disconfirm your developing explanatory model
 Sample Size
112

 No hard and fast rules.

 Sample size depends on:
 Purpose of the research.
 Specific research questions.
 Available time and resources.
 Selection continues to the point of redundancy (Saturation point).
 Guiding Principle is that of, DATA SATURATION: sampling to the
point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is
achieved
 Sample size…
113
 Approaches to determining sample size
114

. Rules of thumb
 A number of authors have proposed rules of thumb for sample
size in qualitative research, based on methodological
considerations and past experience with similar studies
 Approaches to determining sample size(Rules of
thumb)
115
 Qualitative Research Sampling Methods
116

 Purposeful sampling is widely used in qualitative research for the

identification and selection of information-rich cases related to the
phenomenon of interest.
 Purposive sampling technique is commonly used in selecting the study
participants.
 Purposive sampling in contrast to probabilistic sampling, is selecting study
subjects for their ability to generate rich information.
 Purposive sampling in qualitative research can be achieved through different
techniques:
 What is purposive sampling?
117

Purposive sampling, one of the most common sampling strategies,

groups participants according to preselected criteria relevant to a
particular research question (for example, HIV-positive women in
Capital City).
Sample sizes, which may or may not be fixed prior to data
collection, depend on the resources and time available, as well as
the study’s objectives.
Purposive sample sizes are often determined on the basis of
theoretical saturation (the point in data collection when new data
no longer bring additional insights to the research questions).
Purposive sampling is therefore most successful when data review
and analysis are done in conjunction with data collection.
118
 Types of sampling methods
119

Homogeneity To describe a particular Selecting Latino/a directors of Often used for

subgroup in depth, to mental health services agencies to selecting focus
reduce variation, discuss challenges of implementing group
simplify analysis and evidence based treatments for participants
facilitate group mental health problems with
interviewing Latino/a clients.
Data Collection Methods in Qualitative Studies
6-
120

 Three data collection Methods introduced(Most):

1. Focus group Discussion

2. In-depth interviews

3. Observation/ Participant/non Participant

 Qualitative researchers may combine more than one method
121

4: Qualitative Data Collection Methods

 Our techniques should aim to be:
122

Reproducible: that is, someone else could use the same topic guide to

generate similar information;

Systematic: to ensure that we are not just picking interviewees or data

that support our pre-existing ideas about the answers;

Credible: the questions we ask, for instance, and the ways in which we
ask them should be reasonable ones for generating valid (or
‘truthful’) accounts of phenomena.
Transparent: methods should be written up so that readers can see
exactly how the data were collected and analysed.
123

1.Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

 Brainstorming
124

What is FGD?
Number of sessions?

Group composition of FGD?

Number of people per Group?

Seating Arrangements?

Roles of Moderator and recorders?

What are the Steps for Conducting FGD?

What is FGD Guides?

 Focus group discussion (FGD)

 FGD Definition: “a research technique that collects data through group

interaction on a topic determined by the researcher” (pg. 263)
 The most widely used technique
 Primarily concerned with data collection
 Group discussion are the source of the data
 The researcher plays an active role
 The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts,
perceptions, and ideas of the group
 Group Composition of FGD
126

 6-12 people
 Homogeneous
 Diversity inhibits free
discussion
 Group composition
influence group interaction
 Moderator/recorder
 1 to 1½ hr
 Focus Group Discussion
127

 Individuals assembled by a
researcher
 Discussion from experience
 Group interaction between
the participants
 No right/wrong answer
128
 Focus Groups might be used to -
129

 Explore new research areas;

 Explore a topic that is difficult to observe (not easy to gain
access);
 Explore a topic that does not lend itself to observational
techniques (e.g. attitudes and decision making);
 Collect a concentrated set of observations in a short time span;
 Ascertain perspectives and experiences from people on a topic,;
 Gather preliminary data;
 Aid in the development of surveys and interview guides;
 FGD techniques be used to:
130

1. Focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by

exploring in greater depth the problem to be investigated and its
possible causes.
Example: A district health officer had noticed that there were an
unusually large number of cases of malnutrition of children under 5
reported from one area in her district. Because she had little idea of
why there might be more malnutrition in that area she decided to
organise three focus group discussions (one with leaders, one with
mothers from the area and one with health staff from the area). She
hoped to identify potential causes of the problem through the FGDs
and then develop a more intensive study, if necessary.
 FGD techniques be used to:
131

2. Formulate appropriate questions for more structured,

larger scale surveys.
Example: In planning a study of the incidence of childhood
diarrhoea and feeding practices, a focus group discussion showed
that in the community under study, children below the age of 1
year were not perceived as having ‘bouts of diarrhoea’ but merely
‘having loose stools’ that were associated with milestones such as
sitting up, crawling, and teething. In the questionnaire that was
developed after the FGD the concept ‘diarrhoea’ was therefore
carefully described, using the community’s notions and terms.
 FGD techniques be used to:
132

3.Help understand and solve unexpected problems in

interventions.
Example: In District X, the recent national (polio) immunisation days (NID)
showed widely different coverage’s per village (50-90%) and in a number of
villages a marked decrease in coverage was observed compared to last year.
Eight FGD were held with mothers, two in town, three in rural villages with a
marked decrease in NID coverage and three in villages with a high coverage
throughout. It appeared that overall, the concept NID had raised confusion. Most
people believed that this mass campaign strengthened the children’s immunity
against any (childhood) disease, including malaria and Respiratory Tract Infections.
In the villages with a low NID coverage there had been a high incidence of malaria
in children immediately after the previous NID campaign and several children died.
Mothers therefore believed that the NID campaign was useless.
 FGD techniques be used to:
133

4. Develop appropriate messages for health education programmes

and later evaluate the messages for clarity.
Example: The focus group discussion could be used for exploring
relevant local concepts as well as for testing drafts when developing
the messages
 FGD techniques be used to:
134

5.Explore controversial topics.

Example: Sexual behaviour is a controversial topic in the sense that
males and females judge sexual relations and sexuality often from
very different perspectives.
Through FGDs, first with females, then with males, and then with a
mixed group to confront both sexes with the different outcomes of the
separate discussions it becomes easier to bring these differences in the
open.
Things that aren’t focus groups

 Group discussions not intended for research

 Non-interactive group research
 Discussions not directed by the researcher
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)

136

STEP 1: Plan the entire FGD

 What activities need to be planned?
 Is there the need for a resource person.
 Role of resource person in training field staff.
STEP 2: Decide what types of groups are needed
 Method of sampling (selection criteria);
 Composition of groups
 Number of groups ;
 Group size
 Contacting and informing participants.
STEP 3: Select moderator and field team
 Field staff requirements ; Moderator ; Observer/recorder
 Other staff
 Preparing for the Focus Group Discussion

137

 Facilitation Team(FG with 2 Facilitators)

 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

138

STEP 4: Develop moderator’s guide and format for

recording responses
 Structure and sequence of topics
 Wording of guide
 Number of topics
 Example of an FGD guide.
 The topic guide

139

 This is a more or less structured interview schedule for the discussion.

 Generally, the order of questions should be as follows:
 Early questions should be directly related to topic of research.
 Most relevant/interesting questions should be asked as soon as
possible to interest interviewee
 Embarrassing/sensitive questions should be left till later
 Put general questions before specific ones
 Designing FG Guide

140
These are some of the questions used in a guide for focus group discussions as part of a study looking at sexual violence.

141

1) What problems have women and girls experienced in health and security in your community?
2) Can you give examples of sexual violence in the camps?
3) When and where does violence occur?
4) Who are the perpetrators (PROBE: inside / outside the camp, people you know/don’t know).
What happens to the perpetrators?
5) What are the problems that face women after the attack? (PROBE: physical / psychological /
social problems)
6) How do survivors of sexual violence cope after the attack?
7) What are community responses when sexual violence occurs? What is done to prevent violence?
What is done to help survivors? How could these efforts be improved?
8) What social and legal services exist to help to address these problems? Who provides these
services? How could they be improved?
9) Has the problem of sexual violence become worse, better or stayed the same?
10) Is there anything else you’d like to say about sexual violence?
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…
142

STEP 5: Train field team and conduct pilot test

 Theory sessions
 Practice sessions
 On-going revision of FGD guide
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

143

STEP 6: Prepare for the individual FGDs

 Site selection and location for FGD
 Date and time
 Plan for supporting materials or FGD checklist.
 Logistics: Space

144
 Logistics: Time

145
 Setting Ground Rules for FG

146

Confidentiality:
 Try not to use names or tell personal stories
What happens in FG stays in FG
 Try to use words that people will understand

 Respect other people’s opinions

 Speak one at a time (and also speak loudly for the

recording)
 Turn off cell phones
“Is there anything we should add?”
 Logistics: Recording

147
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

148

STEP 7: Conduct the FGD

 Conducting the Discussion; Introduction ; Warm-up; Discussion
 Wrap-up summary
 Member check and FG/Peer -Debriefing
 Collecting and managing information in FGD
149
 Selecting the Participants

150

 Focus group discussions involve six to eight people on average.

 Creating homogeneity in the FGD group can help participants feel more

comfortable expressing their opinions.

Consider the following when you are choosing your participants:
 Gender: Will men and women feel comfortable discussing this topic in a mixed-

gender group? For example, women might feel uncomfortable discussing maternal
health if men are in the group.
 Age: Will age affect the way that people react to this topic? For example, a young

person might feel uncomfortable talking about his drinking habits if older people
from his community are in the room.
 Hierarchy: Will people of different hierarchical positions be able to discuss this

topic equally? For example, a student might feel uncomfortable discussing her
teachers if the school principal is in the FGD.
 Certain criteria should be set up front and used to screen potential FGD participants.
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

151

Functions of the Facilitator:

 Introduce the session –
 Encourage discussion – Facilitator should react neutrally to both verbal and nonverbal responses.
 Encourage involvement - Using person’s name, requesting

his/her opinion, making more frequent eye contact to encourage participation

 Avoid being placed in the role of expert –
 Control the timing of the meeting
 Length of the Focus Group Discussion

152

 An FGD should be between 60 and 90 minutes.

 If the FGD is shorter than 60 minutes, it is often difficult to fully
explore the discussion topic.
 If the FGD is longer than 90 minutes, the discussion can become
unproductive (as participants get weary) and the discussion can
start to impose on participants’ time.
 Strategies to keep people engaged

153

 Treat your participants as experts

 Keep the conversation flowing smoothly
-Managing dominant talkers
-Encourage quieter people to speak
-Allow people to respond to each other, not just the
facilitator
154
 Items to be Recorded Include (FGD)

155

 Date, time, place

 Names and characteristics of participants
 General description of the group dynamics (level of participation,
presence of a dominant participant, level of interest)
 Opinions of participants, recorded as much as possible in their
own words
 Emotional aspects
 Vocabulary used – (to use it in developing questionnaires or
health education materials)
 Spontaneous relevant discussions during breaks or after the
meeting has been closed
 Number of Sessions

156

 It depends upon project needs, resources, and whether new

information is still coming from the sessions (Saturation)
 One should plan to conduct at least two FGDs for each sub-group
(for example, two for males and two for females)
 Otherwise you have no way of assessing whether the information
you get from the first FGD is representative for that group
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

157

STEP 8: Analyze and interpret FGD results

 How much analysis is required

 Debriefing;

 Notes;

 Transcripts; and log book

 Writing the report

 Interpretation of findings

 Example of format of an FGD report

 Advantages of FGD
158

Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they –

 Are useful when exploring cultural values and health beliefs;
 Can be used to examine how and why people think in a particular way and
how is influences their beliefs and values;
 Can be used to explore complex issues;
 Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;
 Do not require participants to be literate.
 Disvantages of FGD
159

Disadvantages of focus groups include –

 Lack of privacy/anonymity;
 Potential for the risk of ‘group think’ (not allowing for other
attitudes, beliefs etc.);
 dominated by one or two people;
 Group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups,
dealing with conflict, drawing out passive participants and
creating a relaxed, welcoming environment;
 Are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time
consuming to analyze.
160

 FGD FINAL.docx
161

2.In-depth Interview
What is an In-depth Interview?
When to use an In-depth Interview?
Stages of Interview Investigation?
What are the Interviewer qualities?
Steps for conducting the Interview?
 What is an In-depth Interview

162

 It is a qualitative research technique that allows person to person

discussion which can lead to increased insight into peoples
thoughts, feelings and behaviour on important issues.
 It can be used as one of the effective ways for understanding
reasons for problem behaviours and gather ideas to guide
measures to correct a problem
 Characterized by extensive probing and open-ended questions
 In-depth Interview
163

 Involves use of key informants to obtain in-depth of information

mostly using open–ended questions.
 Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a
participant’s experiences.
 In-depth interview is conducted with an intention of uncovering
in-depth details of interviewee's experience and perspective on a
subject.
 Presence of peer pressure - behaviours happening to satisfy social
desirability
 In-depth Interviews

 Face to face conversation to

explore issues in more detail
 Last for 30-90 minutes
 Use of open ended questions -
WHAT, WHY, WHERE, HOW,
WHO WHEN- the power of
probing

164
 When to use an In-depth Interview

165

 Subject matter is complex

 Detailed information sought
 Highly sensitive subject matter
 Interest on individual experiences
 Respondents dissimilar to be meaningfully grouped
 Examples of effective probes

166

Direct questions:
• “What do you mean when you say . . .?”
• “Why do you think . . .?”
• “How did this happen?”
• “How did you feel about . . .?”
• “What happened then?”
• “Can you tell me more?”
• “Can you please elaborate?”
• “I’m not sure I understand X. . . . Would you explain that to me?”
• “How did you handle X?”
• “How did X affect you?”
• “Can you give me an example of X?”
 Probing…
167

PROBING is a good questioning skill

Examples

• Does the child have fever? (Closed question)

Probes -How high is the fever?
– Since when has he had the fever?

• Have you given the child medicine?

Probes – What kinds of medicines have you given?

– How much? For how long?

 Examples of effective probes

168

Indirect probes:
• Neutral verbal expressions such as “uh huh,” “interesting,” and “I
see”
• Verbal expressions of empathy, such as,“I can see why you say that
was difficult for you”
• Mirroring technique, or repeating what the participant said, such as,
“So you were 19 when you had your first child . . .”
• Culturally appropriate body language or gestures, such as nodding
in acknowledgment
 Preparing for the interview

169

 Identification of the respondents

 Ensure Trained interviewer
 Selection of a comfortable location
 Other logistics- transport, audio or video etc
 Consider access to local population
 Selection of Informants

170

 Limit to a small sample size

 Select people who are well informed about the issue
 Purposive sampling….
 Respondents fairly representative of the various groups in the
study population
 Informant preferably unknown to interviewers
 Tools for data collection

171

 Interview guide
 Structured open-ended schedule
 The guide makes the interviewing more systematic and
comprehensive
 Preparing the Interview Guide

172

 List the important topics to be explored in the study Eg. Malnutrition

among children- Feeding adequacy, Care of the child, Health seeking

 Write sub themes for each topic Eg. Under feeding adequacy, elicit
information Breast feeding , complimentary feeding, food
preferences etc.

 Make a draft of possible questions based on conceptual frame work

 Check that they can help you obtain all the information you need
 Questions not to elicit simple Yes or No answers
This is an extract from a topic guide on sight
disability and access to care:
173

1) When did the problems with your eyes start?

PROMPTS: What happened next? Did you seek any advice? From whom?
2) What do you think might have caused this?
3) Have you seen a doctor/nurse about your eyesight problems?
PROMPTS: When? Where? What did they advise?
4) IF NO: Have you ever thought about visiting or been advised to visit the clinic?
Explore why not: awareness of clinic services/awareness of cost/availability of
transport and escort.

5) Has your eyesight got worse/better over the last few years? How has this affected your

everyday life?

PROMPTS: ask about activities of daily living (work; in the house; social activities
 Interviewer qualities

174

 Experienced/Skilled
 Knowledge about the topic
 self confidence, ability to establish rapport, good listener,
politeness, articulate enough to prompt respondents to talk
 Training is a pre-requisite if team work
 Conducting the interviews

175

 Self introduction
 Explain the general purpose of the interview
 Impress upon the respondent that his opinions are important
 Seek privacy
 Establish rapport and assure confidentiality
 Consent for the interview recording
 Questioning Techniques

176

 Ask clear and open-ended questions

 Ask behaviour /experience before opinion questions
 Sequence-follow a funnelling method-general to specific
 Probe and follow-up questions

 Eg . Could you tell me more about it?

 Managing the field data

177

 Field editing
 De-briefing
 Transcribing
 Translation if needed
 Stages of Interview Investigation
178

Thematizing-the why and what of the investigation.

Designing -plan the design of the study.

Interviewing -conduct the interview based on a guide.

Transcribing -prepare the interview material for analysis.
Analyzing -decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods
of analysis that are appropriate.
Verifying -ascertain the validity of the interview findings.
Reporting -communicate findings of the study based on scientific
criteria.
179
180
181
182

Interview Procedures
 Interview Steps Preparing for the Interview

183

Getting familiar with the instruments:

1 Study the interview guide.
2 Study the informed consent document.
3 Practice with a partner.
Day of the interview:
4 Using a checklist, verify that you have all the equipment.
5 Label all data documentation materials.
6 Arrive early at the interview site to set up equipment.
7 Test your recording equipment
 Interview Steps Preparing for the Interview

184

Conducting the Interview

8 Greet the participant in a friendly manner to begin establishing positive rapport.
9 Briefly describe the steps of the interview process (informed consent, question and answer,
their questions)
10 Obtain informed consent.
11Turn on the tape recorder and verify that it is working.
12 Verify informed consent orally with the tape recorder on.
13 Conduct the interview according to the interview guide.
14 End the question-asking phase of the interview.
15 Give the participant the opportunity to ask questions.
16 Reconfirm the participant’s consent while the tape recorder is still on.
17 Turn off the tape recorder and thank the participant.
18 Clarify any factual errors expressed by participants during the interview.
19 Reimburse the participant in accordance with study procedures
 Interview Steps Preparing for the Interview

185

After the Interview

20 Check the tape to see if the interview was recorded. If it was not,
expand your notes immediately.

21 Punch out the re-record tab.

22 Make sure all materials are labeled with the archival number.

23 Debrief with other field staff.

24 Assemble all materials into one envelope.

25 Expand your notes within 24 hours if possible

 A topic guide/ Questions
186

How to Frame Questions?

1. Keep your questions simple. Don’t use jargons. Keep in mind, you
are framing questions for a layman not for a professor.

2. The questions should be clear, coherent and concise.

3. Don’t write ambiguous questions.

4. Close ended questions must be avoided in case of in-depth

interview.

5. Follow a logical order in arranging the questions.

 Strengths of an In-depth Interview
187

1. Provides much more detailed information as compared to other

forms of data collection methods like surveys, questionnaire etc.
2. In-depth interview enables researcher to study behaviour of the
participant.
3. It enables the researcher to get an in-depth understanding of a
concept or theme.
4. It becomes suitable for the participants who refrain from
expressing their opinion publicly.
 Limitations of an In-depth Interview
188

1. There are concerns regarding the external validity or

generalizability of the research.

2. It’s a time consuming method. They extract ample time of the

researcher for interview, transcribing, analysing and reporting
the data.

3. Ethical issues .They found that informed consent, privacy

189

 IN-depth interview.docx
 Interview Vs Focus Group
190
191
 What is Observation

192

 Is a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper

setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular
study
 It is a technique that involves directly observing behaviour with the
purpose of describing it .
 Observation
193

Spend time with a group of people as they carry out their daily
activities, to understand their way of life and how they make
sense of the world in which they live.
 To understand experiences of group members, their activities,
interactions, discussions
 To understand how contextual factors influence the activities
and decisions of group members
 Type of Observational Method
194
 Types of Observation
195

 Participant Observation:
 Observer is part of the phenomenon or group which is observed
 Level of participation depends upon the nature of study desired
outcome
 Requires lengthy period of engagement in the field
 The observed may not be aware of the researcher purpose
 Participant Observation-Uses

196

 Discover the relationship between knowledge, attitude and

practice
 Observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to
the observed behaviour and heard statements
 Can be effectively combined with other methods
197
 Participant Observation Steps Preparing for Participant Observation

198

1. Determine the purpose of the participant observation activity as related to the overall research
objectives.
2. Determine the population(s) to be observed.
3. Consider the accessibility of the population(s) and the venues in which you would like to
observe them.
4. Investigate possible sites for participant observation.
5. Select the site(s), time(s) of day, and date(s), and anticipate how long you will collect
participant observation data on each occasion.
6. Decide how field staff will divide up or pair off to cover all sites most effectively.
7. Consider how you will present yourself, both in terms of appearance and how you will explain
your purpose to others if necessary.
8. Plan how and if you will take notes during the participant observation activity. 9 Remember to
take your field notebook and a pen.
After Participant Observation
9. Schedule time soon after participant observation to expand your notes.
10. Type your notes into computer files using the standard format set for the study
 Non-participant Observation
199

 Systematically observing and documenting something in its

natural setting
 Silent observers
 Researcher watches records information about
people or event without intruding into the scene
 Look for many things and describe the situations at many
different levels
 Ethical issues need to be addressed
 No rule as to how many- spread observations over time
 Un- structured Observations

200

 Unstructured observation involves broadly focussed encounters

without a pre-determined guide
 Data primarily used for descriptive accounts
 More of exploratory in nature
 Structured Observation

201

 Observes events that have been planned in advance

 Validate data obtained from other methods
 Standardization of observational technique
 Typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how and
when to observe (Persons/locations, duration of observations,
time to conduct, frequency)
 Can be quantified , but with little contextual description
 What is to be observed

202

 Selection criteria - Depends on the purpose of the study

 Sampling -purposive Sampling
 Sources of information consider what is to be observed, who is
the foci of attention, where will the observation take place and
what is the most appropriate recording system
 Observation Guide

203

 Issues to be observed prepared in advance based on the research

objectives
 Inputs from observers / observers familiar with the issues in the
study
 Goal oriented and suitable to local condition
 The items should appear in logical grouping and in the order in
which to observe them
 Selection of Site

204

 Prior site selection and permission from authorities

 No of observation sites availability, accessibility and study
specific
 Date and time-
 No of observations per site - depend upon the purpose of study
 Conduct the observation

205

 Inform and explain your presence

 Gain confidence and cooperation of subjects
 Remain detached yet involved with the group
 Take note of the observation situations and also
of non-verbal communication
 Avoid making extensive notes during observation
 Documentation in Observation technique

206

 Use all senses to describe -the setting-physical

and social environment, non-verbal communication
 Field notes- include observation notes, feelings and reflections
 Direct quotations
 Technological tools-Tape recorder, camera, Laptop
etc.
 Some problems and solutions

207

 Observer bias
 Questionable reliability
 Observer may influence behaviour
 Actins can only be observed-not thinking
 Several researchers make observations
 Systematically repeat observations
 Repeat observations. Spent time to reduce self-consciousness
 Mix with other methods like interview
 Dimensions of Observation

208

1. Space (physical places)

2. Actors (people involved)

3. Activities (the set of related acts people do)

4. Object (the physical things that are present)

5. Time (the sequencing that takes place over time)

6. Goal (the things people are trying to accomplish)

7. Feeling (the emotions felt and expressed)(Spradlet 1979)

209
 Observations…
210
211

 Example
212

 OBSERVATION.docx
213

5: Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

 Trustworthiness in qualitative research…

214

 Discuss trustworthiness and strategies to enhance

trustworthiness of qualitative findings
 Criteria to ensure Qualitative Data

 Credibility – refers to confidence in the truth of the data

 Prolonged engagement
 Persistent observation
 Triangulation
 External checks – peer debriefing & member checks
 Researcher credibility
 Criteria to ensure Qualitative Data…

 Dependability – refers to data stability over time and over

conditions
 Confirmability –refers to the objectivity or neutrality of the data
Transferability – refers to the extent to which the findings from
the data can be transferred to other settings or groups = similar to
the concept of generalizability
 Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative
research projects
217
218

Trustworthiness of qualitative data

 Trustworthiness of qualitative data
219

Assessing the quality of data.

Four issues in focus:
 Truth value
 Applicability
 Consistency
 Neutrality
 Trustworthiness … cont’d
220

1. Truth value
 The ability of the study to capture what the research really aimed at.
2. Applicability
 The ability to determine the extent to which the findings are
applicable in other subjects or other social contexts.
3. Consistency
 Can the findings be repeated with the same (or similar) respondents
in the same context.
4. Neutrality
 The extent to which the findings are affected by personal interests
and biases.
 Qualitative Issue Quantitative
Credibility Truth value Internal validity
• Subjective realities • Lack of bias
Transferability External validity
• Lessons can be applied Applicability • Generalizability to outside
to other contexts.
the source population.

Dependability Reliability
• Same method does not Consistency • Repeated measurements
produce same result arrive at same result.
• Account for the
changing conditions.

Confirmability Neutrality Objectivity

• Neutrality to data • Researcher is distant and
• Honest to findings detached observer.

221
 Reliability & validity - rigor
222

Use of researcher's personality:

• Involvement with subject's experience

• Live with data collection until no new information appears

Bracketing:
• Researcher suspends what is known about the phenomenon

• Keeping an open context

• Set aside own preconceptions

Intuiting:
• Process of actually looking at phenomenon

• Focus all awareness & energy on topic

• Absolute concentration & complete absorption in phenomenon

 Evaluating qualitative data
223

Good-quality research satisfies the following:

 It thinks theoretically through and with data
 It develops empirically sound, reliable and valid findings
 It uses methods which are demonstrably appropriate to the
research problem
 Where possible, it contributes to practice and policy
 Qualitative techniques to increase
truthworthness

224
 Qualitative techniques to increase
truthworthness
225

i. Prolonged engagement:
Spending long periods in the field to build trust with the study
participants.
 Acquire cultural competence and become familiar with the
overall context.
ii. Member check:
 Taking back the results (short summary) to the studied group
through seminars or FGDs.
 Allows clarification of information.
226
Qualitative techniques. . cont’d
iii. Peer-debriefing
 Presentation of preliminary findings to colleagues.
 Helps the researchers evaluate their role in the research process.
 Allows the researcher to receive input and comments.
 Qualitative techniques. . cont’d
227

iv. Triangulation: is a method used to increase the credibility and

validity of research findings
Common types of triangulation(4).
¨ Data triangulation: Different data sources used (multiple
respondents).
¨ Methodological triangulation:promotes the use of several
data collection methods such as interviews and observations.
¨ Investigators triangulation: the use of several researchers in a
study(different disciplines)
¨ Theory triangulation: encourages several theoretical schemes to
enable interpretation of a phenomenon
 Example
228

 Johnson et al,s qualitative study aimed to identify

system influences on decision making in a pre-hospital
setting with paramedics. Several data sets were included
and comprised exploratory interviews with ambulance
service staff (n=16); document review observations of
paramedic shifts (n=34); paramedic accounts (n=10) via
audio-recorded ‘digital diaries’; staff focus groups (n=3)
and service user focus groups (n=3) to explore a range of
experiences and perceptions.
Methods to ensure trustworthiness include the following
steps:
229

1. Audit Trail: Detailed documentation of all decisions made

during data collection/analysis to ensure a transparent process.
2. Peer Review: This can include an independent review of the
themes by research team members or a review of themes by peer(s) not involved
in the research.
3. Member Checking: Interpretations of the data are shared with
participants to ensure that meaning has been preserved.
4. Triangulation: Compare data with those from other sources
(e.g., focus groups with surveys).
5. Negative Case Analysis: Deliberately look for contrasting
experiences/examples to disprove emerging theories.
6. Data saturation: Gather data until all themes are exhausted.
230

6: Qualitative data management and analysis

 Qualitative data management and analysis …

231

 Describe methods of qualitative data analysis

 Understand and apply (Atlas Ti) software for qualitative data
analysis
 Interpret and write qualitative research reports and describe
strategies to enhance quality of interpretation
 Qualitative Data Analysis
232

 The analysis of qualitative data is often seen as the most difficult

part of the exercise.
 Yet it is very enjoyable to see patterns emerge and be able to draw
out of all the discussions some meaningful conclusions
 Qualitative data analysis

233

 Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might
be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural
settings.
 Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:
 Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up
fieldnotes.
 Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
 Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you
can apply to categorize your data.
 Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going
through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go
through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
 Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.
 There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods
share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.
 Qualitative Data Analysis…
234
 Qualitative data analysis
235
 Qualitative Data Analysis
236

Thematic analysis of data

 A thematic analysis is one that looks across all the data to identify the common
issues that recur, and identify the main themes that summarise all the views you
have collected.
 This is the most common method for descriptive qualitative researches/projects.
 Thematic analysis as an independent qualitative descriptive approach is mainly
described as “a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns
(themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006: 79).
 Thematic analysis 
237

Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data.

It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or 

transcripts.

The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes

– topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.

a six-step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes,

reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up.
 When to use thematic analysis

238

Thematic analysis is a good approach to research about people’s

views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of
qualitative data – for example, interview transcripts, social media
profiles, or survey responses.
Some types of research questions you might use thematic
analysis to answer:
How do patients perceive doctors in a hospital setting?
What are young women’s experiences on dating sites?
What are non-experts’ ideas and opinions about climate change?
How is gender constructed in high school history teaching?
 Different approaches to thematic analysis

239

An inductive approach involves allowing the data to determine

your themes.

A deductive approach involves coming to the data with some

preconceived themes you expect to find reflected there, based on

theory or existing knowledge.

 A six-step thematic analysis process
240

Step 1: Familiarization
• The first step is to get to know our data. It’s important to get a thorough

overview of all the data we collected before we start analyzing individual

items. looking through the data to get familiar with it
• This might involve transcribing audio, reading through the text and taking

initial notes, and generally.

Step 2: Coding
• Next up, we need to code the data. Coding means highlighting sections of our

text – usually phrases or sentences – and coming up with shorthand labels or

“codes” to describe their content.
• Let’s take a short example text. Say we’re researching perceptions of climate

change among conservative voters aged 50 and up, and we have collected data
through a series of interviews. An extract from one interview looks like this:
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
241
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
242

Step 3: Generating themes

• Next, we look over the codes we’ve created, identify patterns
among them, and start coming up with themes.
• Themes are generally broader than codes. Most of the time, you’ll
combine several codes into a single theme. In our example, we
might start combining codes into themes like this:
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
243
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
244

Step 4: Reviewing themes

 Here, we return to the data set and compare our themes against
it. Are we missing anything? Are these themes really present in
the data? What can we change to make our themes work better?
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
245

Step 5: Defining and naming themes

• Now that you have a final list of themes, it’s time to name and
define each of them.
• Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by
each theme and figuring out how it helps us understand the data.
• Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily
understandable name for each theme.
• For example, we might look at “distrust of experts” and determine
exactly who we mean by “experts” in this theme. We might decide
that a better name for the theme is “distrust of authority” or
“conspiracy thinking”.
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
246

Step 6: Writing up
• writing up a thematic analysis requires an introduction to establish our
research question, aims and approach.
• We should also include a methodology section, describing how we
collected the data (e.g. through semi-structured interviews or 
open-ended survey questions) and explaining how we conducted the
thematic analysis itself.
• The results or findings section usually addresses each theme in turn.
We describe how often the themes come up and what they mean,
including examples from the data as evidence. Finally, our conclusion
 explains the main takeaways and shows how the analysis has
answered our research question.
247
File: No file
Edited by: Super
Date/Time: 06/20/2012 05:02:53 PM
______________________________________________________________________

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:1 [Sugar dads are a person mostly..] (58:58) (Super)
Codes: [sugar dads]
No memos

Sugar
248 dads are a person mostly older university teacher ag ed 42 and older who sexually
involves themselves with female university students

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:2 [Mainly they use grade and m ate..] (60:60 ) (Super)
Codes: [Means of explitotation ]
No memos

Mainly they use grad e and materials like laptop, grade, and other in exploitation.

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:3 [Most of them does not have wif..] (63:63) (Super)
Codes: [desire of su gar dads]
No memos

Most of them does not have wife and some of them have wife but aim at completing
their desire of having sex with young girls. So they exploit minors into sexual activities
by giving them grade and laptop and phone so long as they have sex with them.

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:4 [Most of them have two or more ..] (66:66 ) (Super)
Codes: [Needs of young girl]
No memos

Most of them have two or more sexual partners in the campus, in addition they want to
survive in the campus and also want to fulfill their basic needs, and they made a
relationship with sugar dads. They are usually easy going in order to obtain some
income like money, closes, cosmetics, laptop, grade… from me

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:5 [T hey like to use their money a. .] (68:68) (Super)
Codes: [Means of explitotation ]
No memos

They like to use their money and power in exploitation. They may offer a laptop, phone,
 Develop conceptual framework based on the following
codes for struggles of working street children
249

 Lack Uniform
 Lack school fees
 Worry
 Mind elsewhere
 School levies
 Tired in school
 Headaches
 No school books
250
251

 An interview with a respondent who took part in a

study of social workers’ reasons for choosing to work
with refugees and their psychological reactions to the
job (Cropley, 2002)
 Ex.
252

 The interviewer asks about reasons for taking up social

work with refugees.] Well, of course, I wanted a job, and
this one was available. It seemed just right for me. I have
always been fascinated by the exotic or unusual. I wanted
to broaden my horizons. That’s the sort of person I am.
I’m a social creature too. I get along well with people,
even difficult people, so that working with strangers
interested me. It wasn’t just that, though. I like to help
people in trouble. However, I’m an independent type. I
want to be able to work without someone telling me what
to do all the time.
 Ex…
253

 [The interviewer asks: “Are you satisfied with your job?”]What

worries me though is that I want to do my job better. I can see that I need
to learn more about people. You learn a lot on the job and that pleases me,
but I need more academic training. Otherwise, I feel that I am not really
good enough as a social worker. Conditions in the hostel aren’t good. We
don’t get enough financing and the politicians don’t care. The clients are
often very difficult too. They quarrel among themselves and some try to
get more than the others. I don’t know if I am really helping them. They
don’t seem to make much progress. Why can’t they avoid trouble
themselves? Like when they don’t pay their fare on the train. Then they
try to get me to do what they want. I’m sick of them trying to control me.
When I talk like this I feel guilty, because I feel disloyal to my clients.
 Ex…
254

 [The interviewer asks how the respondent feels about the

interview.]Well, it has helped me to do something for myself for a
change. It gave me a chance to overcome my isolation and get new
ideas about my job. I need such conversations in order to
understand the point of my work. Otherwise it just seems to be
doing the same thing over and over again. I feel so helpless. I
often ask myself, “Do you really need this job?” I am too involved
and it wears me down.
 Identify the content units, categories/ Concepts/ identified in the social-work interview

255

Content Units Categories Concepts

(specific, concrete and couched (more general, more abstract and in fairly (abstract, scientific and related
in everyday language) scientific language) to theory)
to work without supervision desire for independence  
to help people in trouble helper syndrome MOTIVATION
fascination with the exotic openness to novelty  
I wanted to broaden my horizons desire for novelty  
working with strangers tolerance for uncertainty feeling of special PERSONALITY
I get along with difficult people personal
qualification
I am not really good enough self-doubt  
I want to know more about people need for greater knowledge  
I need more academic training   SELF-EFFICACY
I feel guilty feeling of personal deficiency
I feel disloyal to my clients negative affect about herself
 
I want to do my job well success orientation  
I don’t know if I am really helping them uncertainty  
The clients are often very difficult    
Why can’t they avoid trouble themselves   JOB-RELATED STRESS
I’m sick of them trying to control me negative feelings towards clients
 
feeling of being manipulated
to understand the point of the work sense of meaninglessness  
to overcome my isolation    
(the job) wears me down isolation BURNOUT
Do I really need this job? sense of personal destruction
I feel helpless sense of meaninglessness
loss of control
256

 Qualitative Lecture\1- ATLAS.ti

7 - 1 Hr LectureWindows.mp4
 Applying the various stages of thematic/ content
analysis in ATLAS.ti
257
 How do you Report the findings
258

It is also substantiated by the in-depth interview that one of the interviewee said
““I have 5 school friends, 4 of them have practiced premarital
sexual practice and three of them have been pregnant and aborted
at least once.”

One female interviewee also said that:

“I haven’t ever thought of sex before marriage, but my boyfriend had
requested me so many times and I have feared of losing him and if
I don’t practice it, I might lose him and I made it simple since all
my friends are passing through it.”
 FGDs
259

 The provision of HEP services for rural families. One statement by a

female community member in, Harari is an example worth mentioning:
‘’The former HEWs visited all the households in the kebele. But the
current HEWs do not do that. They are not providing this service….
During the last 3 years, there were absolutely no house-to-house
visits. HEWs who were working in our kebele 3 years ago visited
every household in the kebele, they inspected our personal hygiene,
they advised us on several issues relating to healthy behaviors.…
But now, they come to the community only when they are forced by
higher officials to do so.’’
FGD, Female Community Members, Harari
 FGD
260

 A community member in an FGD described the

role of WDAs as a bridge in the HEP:
‘’The main assembly point for Health Extension Workers and the
community is the development army. The development army is
the best way to implement every activity of the Health Extension
Program, and it is the key means for the success of the health
extension package’’.
 FGD, Male Community Members, Tigrai
 FGD
261

 One community member explained the role of WDA leaders as follows:

‘’Yes, they transmit health messages. They mobilize the community for
immunization and call pregnant mothers for pregnant women’s
conferences. WDAs know who is pregnant in their communities; they
advise them to get ANC and use maternal waiting rooms. They tell
mothers to get vaccinations, which is important for the newborn. They
teach them to share responsibilities with their husband, because a job
burden could lead to preterm delivery. Moreover, preterm delivery will
lead to further costs, as preterm babies need special care in hot rooms;
the mother will also be admitted there. Therefore, prevention is best.
This is how WDAs assist HEWs.’’
FGD, Female Community Members, Amhara
 FGD…
262

 One WDA leader in a pastoralist community put the challenge as

follows:
‘’People complain/accuse us that we are not working for them,
but rather for our own benefit….We are deeply concerned for the
people, but they think we are only interested in the per diem….It
is very disappointing, and I have been thinking about resigning
instead of always feeling disappointed….Some understand that
we are benefitting the people, but others think we are self-
centered…. The people’s words create hatred and drive you to
quit.’’
FGD, Pastoralist WDA Leaders, Oromia
 Informed consent in Qualitative Research
263

 Informed consent is a mechanism for ensuring that people

understand what it means to participate in a particular research
study so they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way whether
they want to participate.
 Informed consent is one of the most important tools for ensuring
respect for persons during research
 How do we achieve informed consent for
qualitative research?
264

 Inform people about the research in a way they can understand.

 The person should be told:

• the purpose of the research

• what is expected of a research participant
• expected risks and benefits, including psychological and social
• the fact that participation is voluntary and that one can withdraw at any time
with no negative repercussions
• how confidentiality will be protected
• the name and contact information of the local lead investigator to be contacted
for questions or problems related to the research
• the name and contact information of an appropriate person to contact with
questions about one’s rights as a research participant (usually the chair of the
local ethics committee overseeing the research)
265

Basic Principles Qualitative Research Code of

Ethics
 Basic Principles of the American Sociological
Association Code of Ethics
266

 Research should not harm respondents

 Participation must be voluntary and respondents must give informed
consent
 Researchers must disclose their identity and affiliations
 Anonymity and confidentiality must be maintained for respondents
 The benefits of a research project should outweigh any foreseeable
 Ethical issues in qualitative research

267

One starting point in considering ethical concerns:

 Autonomy; respect the rights of the individual

 Beneficence; doing good

 Non-maleficience; not doing harm

 Justice; particularly equity

 Consider carefully the context in which you will be working, the

aim of your research and how sensitive the topic might be.
 Two key ethical issues that should be considered in any project are

consent and confidentiality.

 Ethical Issues in Research in general
268
 Ethical Issues in Research in general…
269
 Ethical Issues in Research in general…
270
271

Structure of Research Proposal

 Structure of research/ proposal
272

1. Proposed Title of the Research Project

2. Summary/abstract (1 page) -(Approximately 1 page)
3.Introduction
 Give a brief introduction in order to orientate your reader to your research
topic, in other words you have to put your research focus in context
(approximately 15 lines).
4. Rationale
 The rationale should be clear on why it is necessary to do this

research study
 Structure of research/ proposal
273

5.PROBLEM STATEMENT
 The problem statement should be formulated in such a way that
it captures or describes the essence or core of the research
problem (what the problem is and why it is a problem). You
should be clear about the essence of your enquiry.
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED STUDY
 The importance or benefits of this study should explain what
contribution it would make to the existing body of knowledge
about this topic.
 Structure of research/ proposal
274

6.RESEARCH QUESTION(S)
 The primary question (main question) should be formulated in
such a way that it is clear to an outside reader. Appropriate
secondary questions could also be formulated if there is more
than one question that should be answered.
7.AIM AND OBJECTIVES
Formulation of aim
 The aim of the study should be clearly stated. There should be a
link between the aim and the title of the research study. 
Formulation of objectives
 State exactly what outcomes have to be achieved in order to
achieve the objectives
 Structure of research/ proposal
275

8.CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
 Provide definitions for the most important key concepts used in your study
9.METHODOLOGY
Typical sections included in this part of the proposal are
 Qualitative research design

 The selection of participants or unit of analysis and the sampling thereof

(who / what, how and why)

 Method(s) of data collection (how and why)

 Method(s) of data organisation (how and why)

 Data analysis strategy (how and why)

 Date interpretation (how and why)

10. CONTEXT_clarify the setting or context of the study.

 Structure of research/ proposal
276

11. TRUSTWORTHINESS
 Describe the strategies you would include in your study to ensure
trustworthiness.
12. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 Include the informed consent
13.TIME SCHEDULE
 Include your predicted time schedule for your study. 
14.BUDGET / RESOURCES
 Include a broad outline of your budget, as well as by whom it
will be funded.
15.REFERENCES
277