Food

Preservation
Charry Jane R. Ventura
Food - any of a number of methods by which food is
kept from spoilage after harvest or slaughter.
Preservatio Such practices date to prehistoric times.
n Among the oldest methods of preservation are
drying, refrigeration, and fermentation. Modern
methods include canning, pasteurization,
freezing, irradiation, and the addition of
chemicals. Advances in packaging materials
have played an important role in modern food
preservation.

- is the prevention of food spoilage.

Food - refers to the procedures or food
preparation steps needed to change the
processing food source such as hog to a
consumable product, such as cooked
ham.
- Thus to be able to preserve food, some
processes have to be done.
- May be subdivided into three categories,
primary food processing, food
preservation and manufacturing.
Food Processing
Primary Processing Food Preservation Food Manufacturing

- refers to the first step - Would mean, in the case - Is a step further where
taken to change a food of meat, curing or canning the meat may no longer
source to food or freezing; for grains, have semblance to the
- Means slaughter for drying. original source such as
animals, for grains it frankfurters/hotdog, ice
could be milling. cream, fruit juices or
- Involves the immediate instant coffee.
post harvest procedures.
The Nature of Food
Foods are derived from plants and animals, both
terrestrial and aquatic. Food material follow a
development process as illustrated by the changes that
a fruit undergoes before it can be used as food. At first
the fruit is immature, then it develops to full maturity and
finally to ripening and if not consumed at this stage will
further undergo senescence and finally, spoilage. There
is a parallel development for animal products. Man
through countless trials and errors have been able to
select which are good food in terms of species or within
species, the right stage of maturity.
Composition of Food
The major components of food are: water,
carbohydrates, proteins and fats as well as vitamins and
minerals. By far the most important is water. The
structure and components of foods are largely
controlled by the interaction of water with the other
components. All components of food are chemically
reactive. Interactions with eac other can result in
beneficial or disastrous effects on food quality.
The Nature of Food

Chemical Reactions in Food

The chemical reactions in food

that are great significance to
preservation are: maillard ( non-
enzymatic browning) reaction,
enzymatic browning, rancidity and
other enzymatic reactions.
Spoilage Mechanisms

Food spoilage may be defined as any change that renders food unfit for human consumption. These changes may be

caused by various factors, including contamination by microorganisms, infestation by insects, or degradation by

endogenous enzymes (those present naturally in the food). In addition, physical and chemical changes, such as the

tearing of plant or animal tissues or the oxidation of certain constituents of food, may promote food spoilage. Foods

obtained from plant or animal sources begin to spoil soon after harvest or slaughter. The enzymes contained in the cells of

plant and animal tissues may be released as a result of any mechanical damage inflicted during postharvest handling.

These enzymes begin to break down the cellular material. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes result in the

degradation of food quality, such as the development of off-flavours, the deterioration of texture, and the loss of

nutrients. The typical microorganisms that cause food spoilage are bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus), yeasts (e.g.,

Saccharomyces), and molds (e.g., Rhizopus).

 Bacteria and fungi (yeasts and molds)
are the principal types of
microorganisms that cause food
spoilage and food-borne illnesses.
Foods may be contaminated by
Microbial microorganisms at any time during
harvest, storage, processing,
contamination distribution, handling, or preparation.
The primary sources of microbial
contamination are soil, air, animal feed,
animal hides and intestines, plant
surfaces, sewage, and food processing
machinery or utensils.
Bacteria Bacteria are unicellular organisms that have a
simple internal structure compared with the cells of
other organisms. The increase in the number of
bacteria in a population is commonly referred to as
bacterial growth by microbiologists. This growth is
the result of the division of one bacterial cell into two
identical bacterial cells, a process called
binary fission. Under optimal growth conditions, a
bacterial cell may divide approximately every 20
minutes. Thus, a single cell can produce almost 70
billion cells in 12 hours. The factors that influence
the growth of bacteria include nutrient availability,
moisture, pH, oxygen levels, and the presence or
absence of inhibiting substances (e.g., antibiotics).
Bacteria The nutritional requirements of most bacteria are chemical
elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium, potassium, sodium, calcium,
and iron. The bacteria obtain these elements by utilizing
gases in the atmosphere and by metabolizing certain food
constituents such as carbohydrates and proteins.

Temperature and pH play a significant role in controlling the

growth rates of bacteria. Bacteria may be classified into three
groups based on their temperature requirement for optimal
growth: thermophiles (55–75 °C, or 130–170 °F), mesophiles
(20–45 °C, or 70–115 °F), or psychrotrophs (10–20 °C, or 50–
70 °F). In addition, most bacteria grow best in a neutral
environment (pH equal to 7).
Bacteria

Bacteria also require a certain amount of available water for their growth. The availability of water is

expressed as water activity and is defined by the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the food to the

vapour pressure of pure water at a specific temperature. Therefore, the water activity of any food product

is always a value between 0 and 1, with 0 representing an absence of water and 1 representing pure water.

Most bacteria do not grow in foods with a water activity below 0.91, although some halophilic bacteria

(those able to tolerate high salt concentrations) can grow in foods with a water activity lower than 0.75.

Growth may be controlled by lowering the water activity—either by adding solutes such as sugar, glycerol

and salt or by removing water through dehydration.

The oxygen requirements for optimal growth vary considerably for different bacteria. Some bacteria
Bacteria
When bacteria contaminate a food substrate, it takes some time before they start growing. This lag phase is the period when the bacteria are adjusting

to the environment. Following the lag phase is the log phase, in which population grows in a logarithmic fashion. As the population grows, the bacteria

consume available nutrients and produce waste products. When the nutrient supply is depleted, the growth rate enters a stationary phase in which the

number of viable bacteria cells remains the same. During the stationary phase, the rate of bacterial cell growth is equal to the rate of bacterial cell

death. When the rate of cell death becomes greater than the rate of cell growth, the population enters the decline phase.

A bacterial population is expressed either per gram or per square centimetre of surface area. Rarely does the total bacterial population exceed 10 10 cells

per gram. A population of less than 106 cells per gram does not cause any noticeable spoilage except in raw milk. Populations of between 10 6 and 107

cells per gram cause spoilage in some foods; for example, they can generate off-odours in vacuum-packaged meats. Populations of between 10 7 and 108

cells per gram produce off-odours in meats and some vegetables. At levels above 5 × 10 7 cells per gram, most foods exhibit some form of spoilage.

When the conditions for bacterial cell growth are unfavourable (e.g., low or high temperatures or low moisture content), several species of bacteria can

produce resistant cells called endospores. Endospores are highly resistant to heat, chemicals, desiccation (drying out), and ultraviolet light. The

endospores may remain dormant for long periods of time. When conditions become favourable for growth (e.g., thawing of meats), the endospores

germinate and produce viable cells that can begin exponential growth.
Fungi

The two types of fungi that are important in food spoilage are yeasts and molds. Molds are multicellular fungi
that reproduce by the formation of spores (single cells that can grow into a mature fungus). Spores are formed
in large numbers and are easily dispersed through the air. Once these spores land on a food substrate, they can
grow and reproduce if conditions are favourable. Yeasts are unicellular fungi that are much larger than
bacterial cells. They reproduce by cell division (binary fission) or budding.

The conditions affecting the growth of fungi are similar to those affecting bacteria. Both yeasts and molds are
able to grow in an acidic environment (pH less than 7). The pH range for yeast growth is 3.5 to 4.5 and for
molds is 3.5 to 8.0. The low pH of fruits is generally unfavourable for the growth of bacteria, but yeasts and
molds can grow and cause spoilage in fruits. For example, species of the fungal genus Colletotrichum cause
crown rot in bananas. Yeasts promote fermentation in fruits by breaking down sugars into alcohol and
carbon dioxide. The amount of available water in a food product is also critical for the growth of fungi. Yeasts
are unable to grow at a water activity of less than 0.9, and molds are unable to grow at a water activity below
0.8.
Control of microbial The most common methods used either to kill or to reduce
the growth of microorganisms are the application of heat,
contamination the removal of water, the lowering of temperature during
storage, the reduction of pH, the control of oxygen and
carbon dioxide concentrations, and the removal of the
nutrients needed for growth. The use of chemicals as
preservatives is strictly regulated by governmental
agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
in the United States. Although a chemical may have
preservative functions, its safety must be proved before it
may be used in food products. To suppress yeast and mold
growth in foods, a number of chemical preservatives are
permitted. In the United States, the list of such chemicals,
known as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe), includes
compounds such as benzoic acid, sodium benzoate,
propionic acid, sorbic acid, and sodium diacetate.
Chemical deterioration

Enzymatic reactions

Enzymes are large protein molecules that act as biological catalysts, accelerating chemical reactions without being consumed to any appreciable

extent themselves. The activity of enzymes is specific for a certain set of chemical substrates, and it is dependent on both pH and temperature.

The living tissues of plants and animals maintain a balance of enzymatic activity. This balance is disrupted upon harvest or slaughter. In some

cases, enzymes that play a useful role in living tissues may catalyze spoilage reactions following harvest or slaughter. For example, the enzyme

pepsin is found in the stomach of all animals and is involved in the breakdown of proteins during the normal digestion process. However, soon

after the slaughter of an animal, pepsin begins to break down the proteins of the organs, weakening the tissues and making them more

susceptible to microbial contamination. After the harvesting of fruits, certain enzymes remain active within the cells of the plant tissues. These

enzymes continue to catalyze the biochemical processes of ripening and may eventually lead to rotting, as can be observed in bananas. In

addition, oxidative enzymes in fruits continue to carry out cellular respiration (the process of using oxygen to metabolize glucose for energy).
Enzymatic This continued respiration decreases the shelf
life of fresh fruits and may lead to spoilage.
reactions Respiration may be controlled by refrigerated
storage or modified-atmosphere packaging.
Table 1 lists a number of enzymes involved in
the degradation of food quality.
Autoxidation
The unsaturated fatty acids present in the lipids of many foods are susceptible to chemical
breakdown when exposed to oxygen. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is autocatalytic; that
is, it proceeds by a free-radical chain reaction. Free radicals contain an unpaired electron
(represented by a dot in the molecular formula) and, therefore, are highly reactive chemical
molecules. The basic mechanisms in a free-radical chain reaction involve initiation, propagation,
and termination steps. Under certain conditions, in initiation a free-radical molecule (X · ) present
in the food removes a hydrogen (H) atom from a lipid molecule, producing a lipid radical (L · ).
This lipid radical reacts with molecular oxygen (O 2) to form a peroxy radical (LOO · ). The peroxy
radical removes a hydrogen atom from another lipid molecule and the reaction starts over again
(propagation). During the propagation steps, hydroperoxide molecules (LOOH) are formed that
may break down into alkoxy (LO · ) and peroxy radicals plus water (H 2O). The lipid, alkoxy, and
peroxy radicals may combine with one another (or other radicals) to form stable, nonpropagating
products (termination). These products result in the development of rancid off-flavours.
Autoxidation

In addition to promoting rancidity, the free radicals and peroxides produced in these reactions
may have other negative effects, such as the bleaching of food colour and the destruction of
vitamins A, C, and E. This type of deterioration is prevalent in fried snacks, nuts, cooking oils, and
margarine.
Maillard reactio Another chemical reaction that causes major food spoilage
is nonenzymatic browning, also known as the Maillard
n reaction. This reaction takes place between reducing
sugars (simple monosaccharides capable of carrying out
reduction reactions) and the amino group of proteins or
amino acids present in foods. The products of the Maillard
reaction lead to a darkening of colour, reduced solubility of
proteins, development of bitter flavours, and reduced
nutritional availability of certain amino acids such as lysine.
The rate of this reaction is influenced by the water activity,
temperature, and pH of the food product. Nonenzymatic
browning causes spoilage during the storage of dry milk,
dry whole eggs, and breakfast cereals.
What 1. Food (nutrients)

bacteria 2. Water (moisture)

need to grow 3. Proper temperature
and 4. Time
multiply?
5. Air, no air, minimal air

6. Proper acidity (pH)

7. Salt levels
Food Food is essential for ALL living organisms.
Bacteria need protein, carbohydrates,
vitamins and minerals - just like we do.
Seafood is a great food source for bacteria - it
contains all of these nutrients and plenty of
water - a good environment for disease-
causing bacteria to grow. Some food
preservation methods such as smoking,
drying, and freezing work by preventing the
water and nutrients in food from being used
by bacteria.
Water or Moisture:
All bacteria need moisture, or water, in a "useable" or "available" form to
grow and reproduce. Bacteria use the water to take in food and to remove
unwanted waste products. Water activity (aw) is one measure of the
available water in a food. The water activity scale runs from 0 to 1.0. The
lower the water activity, the less water is available in a form that can be
used by bacteria. The water activity of pure water is 1.0 - thus the water
activity of all foods falls below this number. However, many food products,
particularly meat, poultry, seafood and dairy products, have a water activity
of 0.95-0.99. Unfortunately, this is the optimum range for many of the
spoilage and disease-causing bacteria. Most fresh seafood products have a
water activity above 0.98 - perfect for bacterial growth!!! Pathogenic
bacteria do not grow well or produce toxin below 0.85 and most require
0.92 or above. Freezing, drying, or salting are ways to reduce available
water to bacteria, and slow down their growth.
Temperature:
Each type of bacteria grows best in a certain temperature range. Not all
bacteria have the same temperature requirements, but most grow best
between 40°F and 140°F, which is known as the TEMPERATURE DANGER
ZONE. Unfortunately, a few very harmful disease-causing bacteria, like
Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum Type E, can also grow
slowly at refrigerated temperatures. That's why proper refrigeration at
temperatures as close to 32°F as possible for unfrozen product is important
- not only for quality but for safety as well. Keeping products cold can stop
some bacteria from growing, but only slows down the rate of growth for
other bacteria. Freezing food and holding it at temperatures below 0°F can
stop bacterial growth. Temperatures at the high end of the Danger Zone,
above 140°F, can also be used to prevent bacterial growth. Heating food to
temperatures above 145°F can be used to kill bacteria. Some type of
bacteria may be more heat resistant than others. Cooking times and
temperatures used in processing must be designed to provide internal
product temperatures that ensure that pathogenic bacteria are killed.
Time:

Bacteria do not grow and multiply instantly.

When enough food and water is available
as well as the proper temperature for
growth, they will multiply over time. This is
why you need to consider both time and
temperature controls to keep products safe
and of high quality. While bacteria may
differ in their optimum growth
temperatures, a good rule is to cool
products quickly and keep them cold to
minimize the amount of time that food is
held in the Danger Zone, the temperature
range most favorable for bacterial growth.
Air, No Air, or Minimal
Bacteria can be placed into three groups depending on whether or not they
Air
need oxygen or air to grow. The first group must have oxygen to grow. The
second group can grow with or without oxygen, and the third group cannot
grow if oxygen is present.

Bacteria like Bacillus cereus can only grow if oxygen or air is present. Many
types of bacteria such as Listeria, Salmonella, Staphylococcus and Vibrio can
grow with or without air. Others, like the spore-forming bacteria,
Clostridium botulinium Type E, can only grow when no air is present. Since
C. botulinum Type E is common in the marine environment and grows best
in the absence of air, preservation techniques like vacuum-packing and
modified atmosphere packaging can be particularly hazardous. Other
controls that provide additional barriers to C. botulinium growth, like low
temperatures and additives such as salt or nitrates, must be used to ensure
that the bacteria that causes botulism does not grow.
Acidity:
The acidity of a food is also important for bacterial growth. Acidity is measured
using what is known as the pH scale which goes from 0 to14, where pH 7.0 is
neutral, a pH less than 7 is acidic and a pH greater than 7.0 is basic or
alkaline. Foods with a pH close to 7.0 are ideal for most bacterial growth.
Every microorganism has a minimum, optimum and maximum pH for growth.
The optimum growth range is about 6.0 to 7.5, but growth can occur slowly at
lower or higher pH levels. A pH of 4.6 and below or a pH above 11 will prevent
pathogen growth.

A pH 4.6 is used as a divider between what we call acid and what we call low
acid foods. Many fruits, such as peaches, oranges and apples are acid foods as
their pH is below 4.6. Many vegetables, meats and fish have a pH above 4.6
making them low-acid foods. There are some exceptions, but most fresh
seafood has a pH above 6.0 - putting it in the optimal range for bacterial
growth.

Some foods start out as a low acid food and are then processed in such a way
that they become an acid food. An example is pickled fish which is produced
by adding vinegar to lower the pH and slow down the growth of spoilage and
disease causing bacteria. Fermented products like fish sauce depend on non-
harmful microorganisms to produce acid to lower the pH and achieve the same
effect.
Salt: The amount of salt in food can also affect bacterial growth.
For most types of bacteria, growth slows down as the salt
content increases. However, there are some types of
bacteria that can grow at high salt levels. A salt level of
10% or higher is needed to inhibit the growth of most types
of bacteria that cause illness, although some pathogens
can grow at much higher salt levels. Flavor is a
consideration when using salt as a preservative, and foods
could get too salty to eat. Control of bacterial growth in
foods is usually achieved by using lower levels of salt in
combination with refrigeration or other barriers that inhibit
the growth of bacteria. For example, with smoked products,
minimum levels of salt (3.5%) in combination with smoking,
cooling and cold storage are required to control pathogens
that cause botulism and staphylococcus intoxication.
 References

https://www.britannica.com/topic/food-preservation

Practical Food Preservation and Processing 2010 Sonido, Divina et. al.

http://seafoodhaccp.cornell.edu/blackboard/module2/list1.html