St.

Paul’s Senior Secondary

school Katni (M.P.)

2022-2023
CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

FOAMING CAPACITY OF SOAPS

SUPERISED BY: SUBMITTED BY:

Mr SHYAM GUPTA Deepam Kumar
Padhi
Roll no. –
Class XII “A”
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that “Deepam
Kumar Padhi” a student of class
XII “A” of St. Paul’s Senior
Secondary School on the topic
FOAMING CAPACITY OF
SOAP under the guidence of our
chemistry teacher Mr. Shyam
Gupta and have been completed
successfuly for the year 2022-2023.

Internal Signature External Signature

 Acknowledgement
I take this opportunity to express
my profound gratitude and deep
regard to my mentor Mr. Shyam
Gupta for his exemplary
guidence, monitoring and
constant encouragement
throughout the course of this
project. The blessing help and
guidance given by his time to shall
carry me a long way in the
journey of life on which I am
about to embark.
 INDEX
• Introduction
• History
• The Making of Soaps
• Properties
• Universe of Soaps
• Biodegradable & non-biodegradable
soaps.
• Difference between soap and
detergents.
• Types
• Disadvantages of Soaps
• Experiment
• Conclusion
 SOAP
Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of cleansing &
lubricating products.[1] In a domestic setting, soaps are 
surfactants usually used for washing, bathing, and other types
of housekeeping. In industrial settings, soaps are used as 
thickeners, components of some lubricants, and precursors to 
catalysts.
When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime,
which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. In 
hand washing, as a surfactant, when lathered with a little
water, soap kills microorganisms by disorganizing their
membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins. It also 
emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running
water.[2]
Soap is created by mixing fats and oils with a base.[3] A similar
process is used for making detergent which is also created by
combining chemical compounds in a mixer.
Humans have used soap for millennia. Evidence exists for the
production of soap-like materials in ancient Babylon around
2800 BC.
 Introduction
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soap are mainly
used as surfactants for washing, bathing, cleaning. Fats and
oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty
acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The
alkaline solution, which is often called lye, brings about a
chemical reaction as saponification. They have a polar end
which is hydrophilic (water loving) and a long non-polar chain
which is hydrophobic (water hating). As a consequence, they
can form emulsion by suspending oil in water.
Fatty end of water soluble end
CH3-(CH2)n-COONa
Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have
both a hydrophilic end, which dissolve in water, as well as a
hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non-polar grease
molecules.
MICELLE
Micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecule dispersed in a
liquid colloid.
In an aqueous solution, molecules having polar or charged
group and non-polar regions (amphiphilic molecules) form
aggregate called micelle. In a micelle, polar or ionic heads
form an outer shell in contact with water, while non-polar tails are
sequestered in the interior.
 HISTORY
Ancient Middle East
Box for Amigo del Obrero (Worker's Friend) soap from the 20th century,
part of the Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection
It is uncertain as to who were the first to invent soap.[The earliest
recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to
around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.[13] A formula for making soap was
written on a Sumerian clay tablet around 2500 BC; the soap was produced
by heating a mixture of oil and wood ash, the earliest recorded chemical
reaction, and used for washing woolen clothing.[14]
The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians used
soap as a medicine and combined animal fats or vegetable oils with a 
soda ash substance called Trona to create their soaps. Egyptian documents
mention a similar substance was used in the preparation of wool for
weaving.[citation needed]
In the reign of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for soap consisted
of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and sesame [seed oil] "for washing the
stones for the servant girls".[
In the Southern Levant, the ashes from barilla plants, such as species of 
Salsola, saltwort (Seidlitzia rosmarinus) and Anabasis, were used in soap
production, known as potash.[16][17] Traditionally, olive oil was used instead
of animal lard throughout the Levant, which was boiled in a copper
cauldron for several days.[ As the boiling progresses, alkali ashes and
smaller quantities of quicklime were added, and constantly stirred.In the
case of lard, it required constant stirring while kept lukewarm until it
began to trace. Once it began to thicken, the brew was poured into a mold
and left to cool and harden for two weeks. After hardening, it was cut into
smaller cakes. Aromatic herbs were often added to the rendered soap to
impart their fragrance, such as yarrow leaves, lavender, germander, etc.
 Roman Empire
Pliny the Elder, whose writings chronicle life in the First Century AD, describes soap as ‘an
invention of the Gauls'.The word sapo, Latin for soap, likely was borrowed from an early
Germanic language and is cognate with Latin sebum, "tallow". It first appears in Pliny the Elder's
account, Historia Naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes. There
he mentions its use in the treatment of scrofulous sores, as well as among the Gauls as a dye to
redden hair which the men in Germania were more likely to use than women. The Romans avoided
washing with harsh soaps before encountering the milder soaps used by the Gauls around 58 BC. ]
Aretaeus of Cappadocia, writing in the 2nd century AD, observes among "Celts, which are men
called Gauls, those alkaline substances that are made into balls [...] called soap".  The Romans'
preferred method of cleaning the body was to massage oil into the skin and then scrape away both
the oil and any dirt with a strigil.The standard design is a curved blade with a handle, all of which
is made of metal.[The 2nd-century AD physician Galen describes soap-making using lye and
prescribes washing to carry away impurities from the body and clothes. The use of soap for
personal cleanliness became increasingly common in this period. According to Galen, the best
soaps were Germanic, and soaps from Gaul were second best. Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300
AD, describes soap and soapmaking.
Ancient China
A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient China from the seeds
of Gleditsia sinensis.[27] Another traditional detergent is a mixture of pig
pancreas and plant ash called zhuyizi (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese
: ; pinyin: zhūyízǐ). True soap, made of animal fat, did not appear in China
until the modern era. Soap-like detergents were not as popular as ointments
and creams.[
Middle East
Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in the Middle East during the 
Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for
soap-making are described by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also
gave a recipe for producing glycerine from olive oil. In the Middle East, soap was
produced from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkali. In Syria, soap was
produced using olive oil together with alkali and lime. Soap was exported from Syria to
other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe.[A 12th-century document describes the
process of soap production. It mentions the key ingredient, alkali, which later became
crucial to modern chemistry, derived from al-qaly or "ashes".
• By the 13th century, the manufacture of soap in the Middle East had become virtually
industrialized, with sources in Nablus, Fes, Damascus, and Aleppo.
 Medieval Europe
Marseille soap in blocks of 600 g
Soapmakers in Naples were members of a guild in the late sixth century
(then under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire),and in the eighth
century, soap-making was well known in Italy and Spain.The Carolingian capitulary De
Villis, dating to around 800, representing the royal will of Charlemagne, mentions soap as
being one of the products the stewards of royal estates are to tally. The lands of 
Medieval Spain were a leading soapmaker by 800, and soapmaking began in the 
Kingdom of England about 1200.Soapmaking is mentioned both as "women's work" and as
the produce of "good workmen" alongside other necessities, such as the produce of carpenters,
blacksmiths, and bakers.
In Europe, soap in the 9th century was produced from animal fats and had an unpleasant
smell. This changed when olive oil began to be used in soap formulas instead, after which
much of Europe's soap production moved to the Mediterranean olive-growing regions. Hard
toilet soap was introduced to Europe by Arabs and gradually spread as a luxury item. It was
often perfumed.By the 15th century, the manufacture of soap in the Christendom had become
virtually industrialized, with sources in Antwerp, Castile, Marseille, Naples and Venice
15th–18th centuries
In France, by the second half of the 15th century, the semi-industrialized professional
manufacture of soap was concentrated in a few centers of Provence—Toulon, Hyères, and 
Marseillewhich supplied the rest of France.In Marseilles, by 1525, production was
concentrated in at least two factories, and soap production at Marseille tended to eclipse the
other Provençal centers.English manufacture tended to concentrate in London.
Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16th century, using vegetable oils (such
as olive oil) as opposed to animal fats. Many of these soaps are still produced, both
industrially and by small-scale artisans. Castile soap is a popular example of the vegetable-
only soaps derived from the oldest "white soap" of Italy. In 1634 Charles I granted the newly
formed Society of Soapmakers a monopoly in soap production who produced certificates from
‘foure Countesses, and five Viscountesses, and divers other Ladies and Gentlewomen of great
credite and quality, besides common Laundresses and others’, testifying that ‘the New White
Soap washeth whiter and sweeter than the Old Soap’.
Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century, as
advertising campaigns in Europe and America promoted popular awareness of the relationship
between cleanliness and health.In modern times, the use of soap has become commonplace in
industrialized nations due to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing the
population size of  pathogenic microorganisms.
19th century
Caricature of Lillie Langtry, from Punch, Christmas 1890: The soap box on which she
sits reflects her endorsements of cosmetics and soaps.
Until the Industrial Revolution, soapmaking was conducted on a small scale and the
product was rough. In 1780, James Keir established a chemical works at Tipton, for the
manufacture of alkali from the sulfates of potash and soda, to which he afterwards
added a soap manufactory. The method of extraction proceeded on a discovery of
Keir's. In 1790, Nicolas Leblanc discovered how to make alkali from common salt.
Andrew Pears started making a high-quality, transparent soap, Pears soap, in 1807 in
London.[44] His son-in-law, Thomas J. Barratt, became the brand manager (the first of its
kind) for Pears in 1865.In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite 
Lillie Langtry to become the poster-girl for Pears soap, making her the first celebrity to
endorse a commercial product.
During the Restoration era (February 1665 – August 1714) a soap tax was introduced in
England, which meant that until the mid-1800s, soap was a luxury, used regularly only
by the well-to-do. The soap manufacturing process was closely supervised by revenue
officials who made sure that soapmakers' equipment was kept under lock and key when
not being supervised. Moreover, soap could not be produced by small makers because
of a law that stipulated that soap boilers must manufacture a minimum quantity of one
imperial ton at each boiling, which placed the process beyond the reach of the average
person. The soap trade was boosted and deregulated when the tax was repealed in
1853.
William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. 
Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837, initially by grinding
the soap with a mortar and pestle. American manufacturer Benjamin T. Babbitt
 introduced marketing innovations that included the sale of bar soap and distribution of  
product samples. William Hesketh Lever and his brother, James, bought a small soap
works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap
businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called Unilever. These soap
businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns.
 THE MAKING OF SOAP.
There are three main ingredients in plain soap,
they are oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other
ingredients may be added to give the soap a
pleasant odor or color, or to improve its skin-
softening qualities. Some soap is better made
using soft water, and for these it is a necessary to
either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water.

Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on the skin and
can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If drunk, they can be fatal.
Care is needed while handling lyes and ‘green’ (uncured) soap.
There are two types of soap: - Soft & Hard soap.
Soft soap can be made using either a cold process or a hot process, but
hard soap can only be made using hot process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the lye, mix it with the fat or
oil, and stir the mixture until saponification takes place.
The cold process may require several days or even months, depending
upon the strength and purity of the ingredients, whereas hot process
takes place within few minutes to few hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully outdoors, do not put them in
the drain.
several things may cause problem with the normal action of soap
molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over starting materials. Extra
fat will make the soap feel greasy.
Positively-charged ions tend to bond with negative end of the
soap molecules, either precipiting the molecules completely, or
interfering with the ion-dipole interactions between the soap
molecules and the water.

1.4 million deaths can be prevented each year by handwashing with soap

· Children under 5 who wash with soap can reduce their risk of pneumonia by 46%

· 1/3 of the worlds soap is used by the U.S

· 10 Billion pounds of soap are produced each year

· The average person encounters 100 chemicals before breakfast

· The largest soap bubble was created on October 9th, 2005 and measured 105.4 cubic feet. If you could fill it
with baseballs it would hold 13.627 of them.

· October 15th is Global Handwashing Day

 TO PREPARE A SAMPLE OF SOAP AND
TO EXAMINE ITS PROPERTIES.
Equipment’s:
 250ml beaker.
 Sodium hydroxide (20% solution)
 100ml beaker
 Ethanol
 Wire gauge
 Saturated solution of sodium chloride
 Laboratory burner
 Calcium chloride (5% solution)
 Glass stirring rod
 Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
 Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution)
 Filter flask and Buchner funnel
 Kerosene and filter paper
 Phenolphthalein indicator solution
 Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
 Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames

Procedure:
• I. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml beaker. Add 20ml of ethanol
and 25ml of 20% sodium hydroxide solution. Stir the mixture in the
beaker. Place the beaker on wire gauze on a ring stand and heat gently.

• Heat this solution gently, keep the flame away from the top of the
beaker to prevent the alcohol from catching on fire.
• II. Heat until the odor disappears.
 III. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to cool down.
IV. Move it safely to bench top.
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to your soap
preparation and stir the mixture thoroughly.
VI. It is used to remove the soap from water, glycerol, and
any excess sodium hydroxide present.
VII. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration apparatus
and wash once with ice water.
VIII. Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
Properties:
Washing properties.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your hands with it. It
should lather rather easily if soft water or use deionized water.
Record your observations.
Emulsification.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing 10ml water and
shake to mix. Emulsion or suspension of tiny oil droplets in water
will be formed. Let this stand for a few minutes
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients and also add a
small portion (1/2g or so) of your soap. Shake to mix. Compare the
relative stability of the two emulsions.
Hard water reaction.
Take 1g of your soap and warm it with 150ml of water in a 100ml
beaker .
 When you have obtained a reasonably clear solution,
pour about 15ml into each of three test tubes.
Test one of the three tubes with 10 drops of 5% CaCl2
solution, one with 10 drops of 5% MgCl2 solution and one
with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3 solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your observations.
Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to skin, silk,
or wool.
It’s test
Dissolve a small piece of your soap in 15ml of ethanol and then add
two drops of phenolphthalein. It the indicators turn red; the presence of
free alkali is indicated.
• Fats and oils are hydrolyzed(split) with a high pressure to yield crude
fatty acids and glycerol.
• The fatty acids are then purified by distillation and neutralized with an
alkali to produce soap and water (neat soap in a liquid form).
• Fatty acid + NaOH > glycerol + sodium soap.
• Sodium soaps are “hard” soap.
• The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable oils such as coconut oil),
the harder the soap.

Fatty acid + KOH > glycerol + potassium soap

Potassium soap are softer and are found in some liquid hand soap and
shaving cream.
1. THE UNIVERSE OF DIFFERENT

TYPES OF SOAP.
Kitchen soaps
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and detergents.
Cleansers
Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are formulated to
eliminate heavy oil or solid particles and hard-to-remove stains. The
cleansers come in many different types depending on the type of abrasives
they contain.
Detergents
Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and release the solid dirt
particles in the foam that is produced by the detergent. There are two types
of dish detergents: machine dishwasher detergents and hand dishwashing
detergents.
Laundry soaps
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid particles and
organic compounds from clothes. They can be found in liquid, powder and
gel forms.
Cleaning soaps
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and soil. The
difference between cleansers and cleaning soaps is that cleaning soaps don't
contain harsh abrasives.
Personal soaps
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special formulations for
specific personal hygiene needs. One type of the personal soap is the
antibacterial soap that is made to prevent bacteria and viruses from
spreading. There are also body and hair soaps that have a mix of ingredients
that cleans both the skin and hair.
 Novelty soaps
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and include the soaps
of the shapes of various items, such as a rubber ducky or the soap-on-the-
rope. There are made not only to clean dirt and grime, but for amusement
and enjoyment as well.

Perfumed soaps
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional ingredients and

perfume .
Guest soaps
Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into attractive
shapes and they are basically designed for the use by guests either in the
main bathroom or separate guest bathroom. Popular and commonly used
shapes are flowers, sea shells and rounds

Beauty soaps
Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and ingredients for a
variety of skin types. They can feature glycerin, or special oil blends.

Medicated soaps
• Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike original soap,
medicated soap has the addition of antiseptics and disinfectants.
 Glycerin soaps
Glycerin is a normally produced during the process of soap
production. Soaps which include glycerin in them tend to
make your skin feel moister.
Transparent soap
Transparent soap uses slightly different ingredients and
usually some form of alcohol to alter the process which is
also conducted at higher temperatures. Not all transparent
soaps are glycerin soaps.

Liquid soaps
Liquid soaps are actually very difficult to produce and many of the
commercial liquid soaps are just in fact detergents.

1. 2.6 million bars of soap are discarded daily by the hotel industry in the U.S. alone

2. Lack of access to WASH contributes to two of the three leading killers of children under the
age of five in the world – pneumonia, which can be prevented by good handwashing and
better hygiene; and diarrhea, which comes from drinking unsafe water and lack of sanitation.
With good quality water, sanitation, and hygiene, children’s lives can be saved.
 · Handwashing by birth attendants before
delivery reduces mortality rates by 19%.

· Liquid soap was patented by the

American William Sheppard in 1865.

Biodegradable & non-biodegradable soap.

Biodegradable soap: -
A biodegradable soap is a cleaning agent that can decompose
naturally over time. These soaps can help reduce environmental
impact when hikers, backpackers, and campers need to bathe or clean
their belongings.
Depending on the formulation of soap that is purchased, it can be
used on the body, face, hair, hands and objects such as dishes and
clothes.
 Non-toxic soaps can be made with organic oils so as to
remain environmentally friendly. Oils can be used in soap
formulations not only to provide a nice fragrance, but also as
part of a therapeutic bathing experience. For example, lavender
and peppermint oils can help relax a tense hiker. Tree oil, eucalyptus
and pumice ingredients can help soothe aching feet. Jojoba, castor and
almond oils are other common oils used in soap formulations.
It is important for individuals to realize that using a biodegradable soap does not
necessarily mean that the soap is safe to use around all water sources. These
soaps degrade over time, but they require contact with soil to do so. If it isn't used
at least 200 feet (60.96 m) from water sources, it can pollute them and make
them unsuitable for other uses.

Non - biodegradable soap: -

Non-biodegradable soaps are cleaning agents which cannot
decompose naturally over time. This kind of soaps can be a threat
to earth, it can cause soil, water and other type of pollutions.
This kind of soap feels good while using but they can cause some
kind of side effects to the applied surface(skin). Normally
professional and instant beauty soap are made with toxic(non-
biodegradable) material.
Its formulation depends upon the kind of area in which they are going
to be used. Soaps with strong smell and constant exposure to it can
even cause nervous breakdown, asthma and migraines. The three
harmful ingredients present in this toxic soaps are parabeans, sulfates
and triclosan.
Let me explain what triclosan/triclocarban can do with us.
The chemicals react with chlorine in tap water to produce dioxins.
Dioxins are neurotoxins that can cause cancer, nerve disorders, and
immune system disorders. The chemicals are endocrine disrupters,
blocking thyroid hormone metabolism and attaching to hormone
receptors to block hormones. According to the EPA, the chemicals can
cause developmental and reproductive toxicity. They are carcinogens.
They contribute to antibiotic resistance in bacteria that causes
infection in humans.
According to the Natural Resources Defense Council (NDRC), in
surveys of the American population between the ages of 6 and 65, 75
percent have residues of triclosan in their systems.
 Difference between soap
and detergent.
Soap: -
There are a variety of soaps. A soap is the metal salt of a fatty acid.
The metal may be an alkali metal such sodium (Na) or potassium(K). These
metals are found in the first column of the periodic table of the elements. Or,
the metal can be an alkaline earth metal, such as calcium (Ca) or magnesium
(Mg). These metals are found in the second column of the periodic table of the
elements.
A fatty acid is an organic compound most often of animal or plant origin. A
fatty acid contains a long-chain aliphatic carbon skeleton (with or without
branches) with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at its end.
An example of a soap is potassium palmitate:
CH₃(CH₂)₁₄-COO⁻ K⁺

Detergent: -
Detergents have some similarities. But are often of synthetic origin. They are
not made insoluble by mineralized (or hard) water. Also, instead of a
carboxylic acid group, a detergent contains a more highly ionic group. It may
have a sulfate or a sulfonate group (-OS(O)₂-OH).
In addition, detergents can include one or more aromatic rings. Detergents
offer added properties. They can be used as surfactants and foaming agents.
 There are even detergents that dissolve in
solvents other than water, such as gasoline. These often
include nitrogen in their formulation. The nitroge
compound often includes a ring as part of its structure. Such
compounds are not only detergents, but dispersants.
An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate:
CH₃(CH₂)₁₂-OS(O)₂-O⁻ Na⁺

Soap and detergent properties in hard water.

The most important difference between a soap and detergent is
their behavior in water. A big drawback of washing with soap is that
it forms a scum in hard water, which is not easy to clean and is known
to turn laundry into a hue. Soaps form a scum in hard water, which is
not easy to rinse away and is known to turn laundry, a grayish hue.
The insoluble film that soap leaves can leave a residue on the laundry
same like as would see in a shower stall where hard water is present.
On the other hand, detergents react less to minerals in water hence
does not leave this residue. In case you are living in an area, where
the water is soft, a soap will work satisfactorily, but even then a
gradual build-up of calcium and magnesium ions (also called 'curd')
will be left on the fabric.

Another important difference between soaps and detergents is the

sensitivity of soaps to acidic conditions. On putting a soap into an
acidic (pH<4.5), it protonates the carboxylate group
 Types
A collection of decorative bar soaps, as often found in hotels
Since they are salts of fatty acids, soaps have the general formula (RCO2−
)nMn+ (Where R is an alkyl, M is a metal and n is the charge of the cation).
The major classification of soaps is determined by the identity of Mn+. When
M is Na (Sodium) or K (Potassium), the soaps are called toilet soaps, used for
handwashing. Many metal dications (Mg2+, Ca2+, and others) give metallic soap
. When M is Li, the result is lithium soap (e.g., lithium stearate), which is used
in high-performance greases.[4] A cation from an organic base such as 
ammonium can be used instead of a metal; ammonium nonanoate is an
ammonium-based soap that is used as an herbicide.[5]
Unlike detergents, when used in hard water soap does not lather well and a
scum of stearate, a common ingredient in soap, forms as an insoluble
precipitate.

Non-toilet soaps
Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners. Greases
are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil. Many other
metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures
thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity
 of oils. In ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to 
olive oil.[
Metal soaps are also included in modern artists' oil paints formulations as a
rheology modifier.
 Production of metallic soaps
Most metal soaps are prepared by the hydrolysis of methane into
ethanoic acid and fatty acids:
RCO2H + CaO → (RCO2)2Ca + H2OToilet soaps[edit]
In a domestic setting, "soap" usually refers to what is technically called
a toilet soap, used for household and personal cleaning. When used for cleaning,
soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article
being cleaned. The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated inside micelles,
tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic (water-attracting)
groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting) pocket, which
shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble. Anything that is
soluble will be washed away with the water.

Production of toilet soaps

The production of toilet soaps entails saponification of triglycerides, which are
vegetable or animal oils and fats. An alkaline solution (often lye or 
sodium hydroxide) induces saponification whereby the triglyceride fats first 
hydrolyze into salts of fatty acids. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated. The glycerin can
remain in the soap product as a softening agent, although it is sometimes
separated.[10]
The type of alkali metal used determines the kind soap product . Sodium soaps,
prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, derived
from potassium hydroxide, are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium
hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps
also tend to be hard. These are used exclusively in greases.For making toilet
soaps, triglycerides (oils and fats) are derived from coconut, olive, or palm oils, as
well as tallow.[Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and 
glycerin. Tallow, i.e., rendered fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals.
Each species offers quite different fatty acid content, resulting in soaps of distinct
feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil
.sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, is reputed for
its particular mildness. The term "Castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps
from a mixture of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOAPS
 Experiment
Objective: -
To compare the foaming capacity
of various soaps.
Requirements: -
1. Five 100ml conical flasks
2. Five test tubes & stand
3. 100ml measuring cylinder
4. Weighing machine and stop watch
5. Five different soap samples
6. Distilled water & tap water

Procedure: -
i. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1,2,3,4 & 5. Put
16ml of water in each flask and add 8g of soap.
ii. Warm the contents to get a solution.
iii. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution in different test tube.
 iv. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake
vigorously or a minute. Do the same for all test tube
and with equal force.
v. Start the timer immediately and notice the repeat of disappearance
of 2mm of forth.

Observations: -
The following outcomes were noticed at the end of the experiment

Observation table
 Result: -
The cleaning capacity of the soap taken is in the order:

Savlon > Dettol > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

Savlon is the winner….

From this experiment, we can infer that Savlon has the

highest forming capacity, in other words, highest
cleaning capacity.
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, soap is a substance, water soluble
sodium salts of fatty acid, that is used to remove dirt and
grimes from a surface. Its molecules have a long
hydrocarbon chain that has a negative charged head. Its non-
polar hydrocarbon chain dosent interact with water
molecules that form micelles. The soap micelles repeal each
other and stay dispersed in water. New micelles form that
having soiling molecules in the center. The dirt gets attached
to them and can be rinsed away.
From this project we concluded that, since soap is started to
consumed it has changed our lives drastically.

We should say thanks’ to soap’s…

because without soaps this world would
literally would not be exist.