Patterns of

Inheritance

PREPARED BY: TYPE YOUR NAME HERE

S8LT -IVf - 18

Predict phenotypic expressions of

traits following simple patterns
of inheritance
 Genetics
 Branch of science that studies how the characteristics of living
organisms are inherited
 Why do you have a particular blood type or hair color?
 Why do some people have the same skin color as their
parents while others don’t?
 Why is it that generation after generation of plants,
animals, and microbes look so much like members of their
own kind?
 GENETICS helps you address these and related
questions more effectively.
ABs Babies – chips off the old
block?
 What is a gene?

A GENE is a portion of DNA that determines a

characteristic.
 Through meiosis and reproduction, genes can be
transmitted from one generation to the next.
 The study of genes, how genes produce characteristics,
and how characteristics are inherited is a field of biology
called GENETICS.
 Science and Society
 Skin color, facial features, hair are commonly used as basis for
classifying individuals by race.
 Today scientists are able to compare DNA of different races.
 Assuming that individuals of a race would be more similar to each
other than they would be to individuals of a different race, scientists
did a reality check.
 About 90% of all genetic variety within the human species do not
involve characteristics that we typically view as differences between
races.
 Background Check
DNA, Genes, Chromosomes
Meiosis
Movement of chromosomes
Segregation and independent assortment
 What Is Meant By
`Mendelian Genetics’?
The first person to systematically study
inheritence was an Augustinian monk
named Gregor Mendel.
Because of his early work, the study of the
pattern of inheritance that follows the laws
formulated by Gregor Mendel is often
called MENDELIAN GENETICS.
 Genetics Jargon
1. Gene: Mendel thought of the gene as a particle that
could be passed from parents to offspring (children,
descendants, or progeny)
Today we know that genes are actually composed of
specific nucleotide sequences
2. Locus (Plural = loci): The specific site on the
chromosome where a particular gene is located.
3. Ploidy: Diploid (2n) / Haploid (n)
 Diploid cells have 2 sets of
Chromosomes

2(n) cell Meiosis (n) gametes

n+n gametes Fertilization 2n

Diploid Organisms result from the fertilization of
Haploid Sperm and Haploid Egg inheriting one
gene of each type from each parent.
 More Definitions…

Homologous Chromosomes
A pair of chromosomes that have genes
coding for the same characteristics at
corresponding locations (loci).
Alleles
The genes at corresponding loci of a
homologous pair of chromosomes are called
alleles.
Alleles
 More Definitions…
 A trait
 may be any single feature or quantifiable measurement of
an organism.
 A characteristic, especially one that distinguishes an
individual from others.
•Eye color
•Chin shape
•Eye color
•Hair color
•Nose shape
•Hair line
•Dimples
•Space between top teeth
•Ear lobe shape
 Trait: earlobe shape
Variants: attached, free, pixie

Attached earlobe Free earlobe

Pixie ear deformity

 More Definitions…

 Genotype
› The combination of alleles located on homologous
chromosomes that determines a specific characteristic or trait.
› It is the genetic constitution of an organism or a group of
organisms.
 Phenotype
› The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an
organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and
environmental influences.
› The outward appearance of an organism; the expression of a
genotype in the form of traits that can be seen and measured,
such as hair or eye color.
Genotype vs Phenotype
Alleles and traits

 As mentioned in a previous slide, diploid organisms

may have 2 different forms of a gene.
 In fact, there may be several alternative forms of each
gene within a population.
 ALLELES are different forms of a gene present at the
same locus.
 Example, In people there are 2 alleles for the gene for
earlobe shape – free and attached.
 Alleles are located on a pair of homologous
chromosomes – one allele on each chromosome.
E E homozygous
E e heterozygous
E e homozygous
Alleles
 Dominant Alleles
 The term DOMINANT allele refers to the allele that causes a
phenotype that is seen in a heterozygous genotype. [Ex for the
trait of earlobe shape, Ee will imply free earlobe
 If a genetic trait is dominant, one copy of the gene is sufficient
for the expression irrespective of the other allele.
 Dominant traits have a 50% chance to pass from parent to
child.
 Dominant alleles are usually represented with a CAPITAL
LETTER. [Ex E for free earlobes]
 Recessive Alleles
 A RECESSIVE allele is one that is phenotypically expressed
in the homozygous state but has its expression masked in the
presence of a dominant gene.
 Recessive genes are usually represented by a lowercase letter
as opposed to the uppercase letters of dominant genes. [Ex e
for attached earlobes]
 If a genetic trait is recessive, a person needs to inherit 2 copies
of the gene for the trait to be expressed [ee].
 A CARRIER is a person who is heterozygous for a trait [Ee].
 If both parents are carriers, there is a 25% chance with each
child to show the recessive trait.
 Dominant vs Recessive
Alleles
homozygous

heterozygous

homozygous
Recessive alleles are not necessarily
`bad’

 The term `recessive’ has nothing to do with the

significance or value of the allele
 It simply describes how an allele can be
expressed.
 Recessive alleles are not less likely to be inherited
but must be present in the homozygous condition
to express themselves.
 Recessive alleles are not necessarily less frequent
in a population.
 Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
 Mendel started the idea of particulate inheritance
 WHY Peas ????
 Seven different traits each of which is in 2 different forms.
[flowers are either purple or white and seeds yellow or
green and seed shape round or wrinkled]
 Male, female reproductive parts are contained in the same
flower. Control of crosses possible.
 Plant small, grows easily, quickly producing many
offspring.
How did he carry out his experiments?

1. Mendel would cross-pollinate (hybridize) two contrasting,

true-breeding (homozygous for selected trait) pea varieties
(Pureline Population).
2. He got true breeders by allowing self pollination for several
generations.
3. The true-breeding parents are the P generation.
4. and their hybrid offspring are the F1 generation.
5. Mendel then allowed the F1 hybrids to self-pollinate to
produce an F2 generation.
 Mendel cross-pollinated two strains (e.g. TT  x  tt )

Trait - plant height

              Alleles - T tall, t short
P1 cross    TT  x  tt genotype      --    Tt
  t t   phenotype    --    Tall
T Tt Tt   genotypic ratio --all alike
T Tt Tt   phenotypic ratio- all alike

 The offspring of this cross were all hybrids showing only the
dominant trait & were called the First Filial or F1 generation
 Mendel reasoned that the heritable factor for white flowers was
present in the F1 plants, but it did not affect flower color.
F1 Cross
Mendel then crossed two of his F1 plants and tracked their traits;
known as an F1 cross
When 2 hybrids were crossed, 75% (3/4) of the offspring showed the
dominant trait & 25% (1/4) showed the recessive trait; always a 3:1
ratio
The offspring of this cross were called the F2 generation
Trait - plant height
              Alleles - T tall, t short
F1 cross    Tt  x  Tt genotype      --    TT, Tt, tt
  T t   phenotype    --    Tall & short
T TT Tt   genotypic ratio --1:2:1
t Tt tt   phenotypic ratio- 3:1
Mendels Laws

 Law of dominance —an allele that is expressed

over the other allele is said to be dominant.
 Law of segregation —when gametes are formed
by a diploid organism, the alleles that control a
trait separate from one another into different
gametes, retaining their individuality.
 Law of independent assortment —members of
one gene pair separate independent of other gene
pairs.
What Mendel Learnt from his Experiments
The hereditary determinants are of a particulate nature. These
determinants are now called genes.  
The F1 from a cross of two pure lines contains one allele for the
dominant phenotype and one for the recessive phenotype. These
two alleles comprise the gene pair.  Law of Dominance was based
on this observation.
One member of the gene pair segregates into a gamete, thus each
gamete only carries one member of the gene pair.  Law of
segregation was based on this.
Gametes unite at random and irrespective of the other gene pairs
involved. Law of independent assortment was based on this.
Law of Dominance states that when different alleles for a
characteristic are inherited (heterozygous), the trait of only one
(the dominant one) will be expressed. The recessive trait's
phenotype only appears in true-breeding (homozygous)
individuals

Trait: Pod Color

Genotypes: Phenotype:
Green Pod
GG

Green Pod
Gg

Yellow Pod
gg
What Mendel Learnt from his Experiments

 Law of Segregation states that each genetic trait is produced

by a pair of alleles which separate (segregate) during
reproduction
 Ex. R=round seed; r=wrinkled seed

Rr

R r
What Mendel Learnt from his Experiments

 Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of

different genes separate independently of each other during gamete
formation
 So one trait does not influence or control another.
 Example: Not all dark haired people have dark eyes
 Ex. Pea seeds: R=round, r=wrinkled; Y=yellow, y=green

RrYy

RY Ry rY ry
Independent Assortment of
chromosomes during meiosis
Single Factor Crosses

 The 1st type of problem we will consider is the

easiest type, a single-factor cross.
 A single-factor cross or mono-hybrid cross is a
genetic cross or mating in which a single
characteristic is followed from one generation to
the next.
 Single Factor Crosses
 If you cross a true breeding tall pea plant with another tall pea
plant, all the offspring will be tall.

T T
 T TT TT
 T
TT TT

 To better understand the cross, we use the Punnett square as

shown above.
 Single Factor Crosses
• If you cross a true breeding short pea plant with another
short pea plant, all the offspring will be short.

t t
t tt tt
t
tt tt
• Thus the probability of getting short offspring is 100%
or 4:4
 Single Factor Crosses
• If you cross a tall pea plant with a short pea plant, the
offspring will be as follows
t t
T
T Tt Tt
Tt Tt

• Because tall is dominant, the phenotype is 100% tall

(4:4). The genotype is also 4:4 (all will be heterozygous
tall).
 Single Factor Crosses
• If you cross a heterozygous tall pea plant with
another heterozygous tall pea plant,

T t
T TT Tt

t Tt tt

• One will be homozygous tall, two will be heterozygous

tall and one will be homozygous short.
• The genotypic ratio will be 1:2:1 and the phenotypic
ratio will be 3:1, that is, 3 will be tall and 1 will be short.
Punette Square
Predictions for
F1 and F2
Progeny

F1 = P + x P
F2 = F1 x F1
+
Test Cross

 Test Cross is the

cross between
any F2 progeny
and recessive
parent.
 Back Cross is
the cross
between any F2
progeny and any
parent.
 Single Factor Crosses:
Example
 Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a neurological disorder
characterized by tics
 Tics are involuntary, rapid, sudden movements or
vocalizations that occur repeatedly in the same way.
 Motor tics can be described as rapid, repetitive muscle
movements, such as rapid eye blinking or head jerking.
 Vocal tics, sometimes called phonic tics, are phrases or sounds
such as grunting, sniffing, barking, throat clearing, and rarely,
swearing.
 In humans, the allele for Tourette syndrome (TS) is inherited
as an autosomal dominant allele.
Inheritance of Tourette Syndrome (TS)
 If both parents are heterozygous (Tt), what is the probability
that they will have a child without TS?

 Steps in solving heredity problems –

1. Assign a symbol for each allele [T, t]

2. Determine the genotype of each parent [Tt, Tt]
3. Determine all the possible kinds of gametes each parent can
produce [T, t]]
4. Determine all possible combinations that can result when these
gametes unite [Punette Square]
5. Determine the phenotype of each possible gene combination
 2. Determine the genotype of each parent [Tt, Tt]

 Allele Genotype Phenotype

 T=Tourette TT Tourette syndrome
 t=Normal Tt Tourette Syndrome
tt Normal
1. Assign a symbol Female genotype = Tt
for each allele Possible female gametes T, t
Male
genotype =
gametes T t
Tt
Possible
Male T
Gametes T, t

3. Determine all the possible kinds t

of gametes each parent can
produce
4. Determine all possible combinations that can
result when these gametes unite [Punette Square]

gametes T t

T TT Tt

t Tt tt

GENOTYPIC RATIO IN PROGENY

1:2:1
5. Determine the phenotype of each possible gene
combination

gametes T t

T TT Tt
Tourette Tourette
t Tt tt
Tourette normal

PHENOTYPIC RATIO IN PROGENY

3:1
 Autosomal
Dominant
Mutation
• Red = Mutant allele
• Mother has 2 copies of
the unaltered
chromosomes.
• 50% of the children will
inherit a chromosome
with the dominant
mutation
Autosomal recessive gene

 Recessive genetic disorders occur when both

parents are carriers and each contributes an
allele to the embryo.
 As both parents are heterozygous for the disorder,
the chance of two disease alleles landing in one of
their offspring is 25%
 50% of the children are carriers.
 When one of the parents is homozygous, the trait
will only show in his/her offspring if the other
parent is also a carrier.
 In that case, the chance of disease in the offspring
is 50%.
 The Double Factor cross
 A double factor cross or di-hybrid cross is a genetic study in
which two pairs of alleles are followed from the parental
generation to the offspring.
 Here you are working with 2 different characteristics from
each parent.
 It is necessary to use Mendel’s law of independent
assortment when considering di-hybrid crosses.
Example

 In humans the allele for free earlobes is dominant

over that for attached earlobes.
The allele for dark hair dominates over that for
light hair.
 If both parents are heterozygous for earlobe shape
and hair color, what types of offspring can they
produce? What is the probability for each type?
1. Assign a symbol for each trait
 E=free earlobes; e=attached earlobes
 D=dark hair, d=light hair
2. Determine the genotype and phenotype of each combination

genotype phenotype
EE Free earlobes
Ee Free earlobes
ee Attached earlobes
HH Dark Hair
Hh Dark Hair
hh Light hair
3. Determine all the possible kinds of gametes each parent can produce
[EH, Eh, eH, eh]
4. Determine all possible combinations that can result when these
gametes unite [Punette Square]

Gametes Genotype of both parents = EeDd

From each
parent EH Eh eH eh

EH EEHH EEhh EehH Eehh

Eh EEhH EEhh EehH Eehh
eH eEHH eEHh eeHH eeHh
eh eEhH eEhh eehH eehh
 EeHh
Phenotype
EH Eh eH eh
of Progeny
EH EEHH EEHh EeHH EeHh The probability of
P1 P1 P1 P1 having a given
Eh EEhH EEhh EehH Eehh phenotype
P1 P2 P1 P2
eH eEHH eEHh eeHH eeHh 9/16 = P1
P1 P1 P3 P3 3/16 = P2
3/16 = P3
eh eEhH eEhh eehH eehh 1/16 = P4
P1 P2 P3 P4
Phenotypic
P1 Free earlobes / Dark Hair
P2  Free earlobes / light hair
Ratio
P3  Attached earlobes / dark hair 9:3:3:1
P4  Attached earlobes / light hair
How Did Mendel Deduce His 3 Laws?
 He knew that he could get the F1
hybrids only if the alleles
segregated from each other during
gamete formation.
 He also deduced that one of the
traits must be dominant if it is
capable of being expressed in the
heterozygous condition.
 Mathematically he could prove that
if the alleles were assorted
independently, he should get a ratio
of 9:3:3:1 in his F2 generation.
 He found that this was true in all 7
traits that he chose.

FORTUNE FAVORS THE PREPARED

MIND???
 Very Simple????
 The relationship of genotype to phenotype is rarely simple like
in our examples because there are exceptions to all rules.

 Mendel lucked out in picking peas plants because each trait is

controlled by 1 gene, genetically simple. But this is rare….
 Lets examine some deviations from Mendels Laws…
Co-Dominance

 In some inheritance situations, alleles lack

dominant and recessive relationships.
 In cases of co-dominance, both alleles are fully
expressed phenotypically in the heterozygous
condition.
 This is not consistent with Mendel’s law of
dominance.
 With co-dominance, the two traits both appear in
the offspring, often showing up in different parts
of the plant or animal.
Co-dominance in flowers
 Co-dominance in cattle
When cattle of red coat are crossed
with the cattle of white coat, the F1
hybrid is found to possess red and
white hairs which occur in definite
patches but no hair has intermediate
color of red and white. The resulting
coat color is referred to as roan.

If a roan female is crossed with a roam male, what would

(a) the genotypic ratio and (b) the phenotypic ratio of the
progeny be?
Solving problems on Co-
dominance
1. Assign a symbol for each trait
 CR = red hair; CW = white hair;
2. Determine the genotype and phenotype of each combination
CR CR = red coat, CR CW = Roan Coat, CW CW = White Coat
3. Determine all the possible kinds of gametes each parent can
produce: CR , CW in both cases
4. Determine all possible combinations that can result when these
gametes unite [Punette Square]

gametes CR CW
Phenotypic Ratio
CR R C RC W
C C
R
1:2:1
CW CWCR CW CW Red:Roan:White
Incomplete Dominance
 Incomplete dominance occurs in the heterozygous or hybrid
genotype where the 2 alleles blend to give a different phenotype
 Flower color in snapdragons shows incomplete dominance
whenever a red flower is crossed with a white flower to produce
pink flowers.
Incomplete Dominance in snapdragon flowers

CRCR CWCW

CRCW CRCW

CR C R CRCW

CRCW CWCW
Incomplete Dominance in
humans
 The most well-studied example of incomplete
dominance in humans occurs in the genes for
curly hair.
 Inheriting a gene for curly hair from one parent
and a gene for straight hair from the other
parent will give a hair texture that is a blend of
the two, wavy hair.
Co-dominance vs Incomplete Dominance

 In plants, snapdragons exhibit incomplete dominance for

color traits.
 When a red snapdragon and a white snapdragon are crossed (mated),
the color of the offspring is neither white nor red.
 Instead, the resulting snapdragon will be pink.
 With co-dominance in flowers, on the other hand, the
resulting offspring between red and white parents would not
be pink.
 Instead, they would be red with white spots or white with red spots, the
result of both colors being co-dominant.
Note:

Both incomplete dominance and co-

dominance genetics problems work the
same way.

The only difference is in the way the cell

cellular machinery works out the
phenotypic expression.
Multiple Allelism

 Many Genes Have Multiple Alleles

A population might have more than two alleles
for a given gene.
 Ex. ABO blood type genes
 Even if more than two alleles exist in a
population, any given individual can have no
more than two of them: one from the mother
and one from the father.
Human Blood Types
 Human blood types are encoded by a single locus with 3
possible alleles: IA, IB, IO.
 IA, IB code for two different proteins, cell surface antigens A
and B and IO codes for lack of blood antigen protein.
 Since humans are diploid, we have a blood type that depends
upon the proteins on the surface of the blood cells.
 Blood group A results from the genotype IA IA , B results from
IB IB and O results from IO IO.
 When the genotype is IA IB , co-dominance is seen, and the
blood type is AB
IA and IB are dominant alleles, IO (i) is recessive.
 Human ABO Blood Group System

A man of blood type A marries a woman of blood type B. Both

are heterozgyous for blood antigen. What are the possible
phenotypes of the offspring?
Solving problems on multiple allelism

1. Assign a symbol for each trait

 IA = A antigen; IB = B antigen; IO or i = no antigen
2. Determine the genotype and phenotype of each combination
IA IA or IA IO = type A, IA IB = type AB, IB IB or IB IO = type B, IO IO = type O
3. Determine all the possible kinds of gametes each parent can
produce: IA , IO and IB , IO
 Determine all possible combinations that can result when these
gametes unite [Punette Square]

gametes IA IO
Phenotypic Ratio
I B
II
B A
II
B O
1:1:1:1
IO IOIA IOIO AB:A:B:O
In this example, a father with blood type A and a mother with blood
type B have four children, each with a different blood type: A, AB,
B, and O.
Pleiotropy
 Pleio = changeable
 Multiple effects of a single gene on a phenotype.
 Most genes are Pleiotropic, affecting more than one
phenotypic trait
 Examples of diseases involving pleiotropy include:
 PhenylKetonUria
 SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
 MARFAN SYNDROME
Pleiotropy:
1. Phenylketoneuria [PKU]-

 This is a genetic disorder in which some

chemicals in the body do not break down as they
should. These chemicals can harm brain cells.
 Children born with PKU are given special diets.
 In this case, a single gene affects many chemical
reactions that depend on how a cell metabolizes
the amino acid phenylalanine.
 This phenomenon is referred to as
PLEIOTROPY.
Phenylketoneurea [PKU]
Pleiotropy:
2. Sickle cell
anemia

one mutant gene,

many symptoms

Single amino acid

substitution in the
hemoglobin protein
Pleiotropy:
3. Marfan Syndrome
 Marfan syndrome is an autosomal dominant
disorder that affects the connective tissue but can also
affect other tissues.
 Symptoms include:
 disproportionately long arms and legs
 abnormally long fingers
 skinniness
 scoliosis of the spine
 abnormally shaped chest
 Polygenic Inheritance
 Polygenic inheritance, the inheritance of a characteristic which
is controlled by more than one gene. It can cause a great range in
the phenotypic out come of an individual.
 Ex. Human skin color controlled by ~5 genes.
 Dark skin is dominant over light skin.
 For simplicity, only 3 genes are considered.
 D1D2D3 individual has dark skin color and d1d2d3 has light skin
color.
 Crosses between two [D1d1D2d2D3d3] heterozygote individuals
would yield offspring covering a vast range of shades.
 Polygenic inheritance: additive effects (essentially,
incomplete dominance) of multiple genes on a single trait

AA = dark
Aa = less dark
aa - light
And similarly for the other
two genes - in all cases
dominance is incomplete for
each gene.

Think of each “capital” allele

(A, B, C) as adding a dose of
brown paint to white paint.
A brief note on skin color

 Evolution has selected for greater melanin production in areas

of greater light intensity to protect against UV radiation/skin
cancer, and also
 selected for less melanin production in lower light intensity
regions to allow greater vitamin D production.
 The selective advantages of particular skin colors can now be
overcome by the use of sun-block creams and vitamin D
supplements.
 Point to ponder for regular users of `Fair and Lovely’ or
`Fair and Handsome’
Black or white – does it really matter?

Sidney Poitier and Gregory Peck

Sex Determination
 Sex chromosomes differ between males and females of the same
species.
 Autosomes carry the same genes in both sexes of a species.
 In many organisms including humans, sex is determined by the
presence of a certain chromosome combination.
 In mammals, the genes that determine maleness are located the Y-
chromosome, a very small chromosome.
 The X and Y chromosomes behave like homologous chromosomes
during meiosis.
 Males =XY
 Females = X X
The Birds and the Bees… and the Alligators
Organism Sex Determination
Mammals XY = male
Birds XY = female; WZ is used for sex chromosomes in birds

Bees Males (drones) are haploid, females (workers and queen)

are diploid
Alligators, turtles and Egg incubation ; higher temperature causes the embryo to
lizards (some sps.) develop into a female.
Boat Shell snails Males can become females but remain males if they mate
and remain in one spot.
Shrimp, orchids, and Males convert to females; on occasion females convert to
some tropical fish males, probably to maximize breeding.

African reed frog Females convert to males, probably to maximize breeding.

Sex Linkage

Occurs when genes

are located on sex
chromosomes.
Phenotype and Environment
 The phenotype of an organism depends on environment and
genes.
 How Much of each?
 Ex. nutrition influences height and weight, exercise alters build,
sun-tanning darkens the skin, and experience improves
performance on intelligence tests
 Ex. The Artic Fox turns brown in summer and white in winter
so does snow shoe hair and grouse.
 Ex. Sex in many animals is determined by temperature [Ex
salamander]
Coat Color In Arctic fox

SUMMER COAT WINTER COAT

 Flower color in Hydrangea
 Flower color in Hydrangea is
dependent on aluminum and soil
pH.
 Aluminum is necessary to
produce blue pigment.
 Most garden soils have adequate
aluminum, but the aluminum
will not be available to the plant
if the soil pH is high (alkaline).
 Flower color in Hydrangea
 Blue flowers will be produced in acidic soil (pH 5.5 and lower),
 whereas neutral to alkaline soils (pH 6.5 and higher) will usually produce
pink flowers.
 Between pH 5.5 and pH 6.5, the flowers will be purple or a mixture of
blue and pink flowers will be found on the same plant.
 Fur color in cats
 Cats of the Himalayan series (colour points, minks, sepias) have heat-
sensitive tyrosinase enzymes.
 Normal tyrosinase converts the amino acid tyrosine into melanin
(pigment).
 This enzyme denatures at normal body temperatures, the color is formed
only on the colder extremities of the body (legs, tail ears, face).
Fur color in Siamese cats

 This is why Siamese cats get

darker in winter and paler in
summer.
 If you put socks on your
Siamese kitten for several
weeks, it would end up with
white markings on its feet!
What are Identical Twins?
 Identical, or monozygotic, twins develop from a
single egg/sperm combination that splits a few days
after conception.
 Their DNA originates from a single source, thus their
genetic makeup is the same and the characteristics
that are determined by genetics will be similar.
 Monozygotic twins are always of the same gender,
except in extremely rare cases of chromosomal
defect.
Fraternal or Dizygotic Twins
 On the other hand, fraternal, dizogotic
twins occur when two separate eggs are
fertilized by separate sperm in a single
ovulation cycle.
 They are no more alike than any sibling set,
sharing about 50% of their genetic
markers in a unique combination of genes
from both parents.
Why Are Identical Twins Different?

 Despite their shared genetic component, identical multiples

are unique individuals.
 Though they do share similarities, they also have many
differences.
 While identical twins form with the same set of genes, human
development is not just genetic.
 The environment also has an impact
 So, beginning in the early environment of the womb, external
influences can change the appearance of twins.
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