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CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGY

TWELFTH EDITION

Enger • Ross • Bailey

CHAPTER 9

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 9.1 The importance of cell division

● The ability to grow and reproduce are two

fundamental qualities of life.
● During cell division, one cell becomes two new
cells.
– Accomplishes growth and reproduction (See p. 164)
– 1st type: Reproduction occurs as binary fission in prokaryotes.
– 2nd type: Growth and some reproduction occurs as mitosis in
eukaryotes.
– 3rd type: Reproduction often involves meiosis in eukaryotes.
● All cell division is preceded by DNA replication.
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 Uses of binary fission and mitosis

● In single-celled organisms
– Mitosis and binary fission are means of asexual
reproduction.
● In multi-cellular organisms mitosis:
– Causes growth by increasing the number of cells
– Replaces lost cells
– Repairs injuries

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 Uses of meiosis

● Sexual reproduction involves the donation of

genetic information from two parents.
– Each parent can only donate half of the genome.
● Meiosis occurs prior to sexual reproduction.
– Generates gametes (egg and sperm) with half of
a genome
– The egg and sperm then join during fertilization to
make a unique offspring.

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 9.2 The cell cycle

● Eukaryotic cells
– Pass through
different stages
between the time
they are “born” and
the time they divide
again
– A continuous
process
– Includes interphase
and mitosis
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 Interphase-G1

● During interphase cells

– engage in metabolic activities.
– prepare for the next cell division.
● The three phases of interphase
– G1
● The cell gathers nutrients, carries out its regular
metabolic roles, and performs its normal function
● Commits to divide
● Some cells never divide; they stay in G1, called Go .
● Prepares for DNA replications
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 Interphase-S
● S phase
– DNA replication occurs.
– The DNA in
chromosomes is
wrapped around
histones.
● DNA + histones =
chromatin
– When S phase is
complete
● The identical copies
are connected
together.
● Each is called a
sister chromatid.
– Connected at the
centromere

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 Interphase-G2

● During G2
– Final preparations
are made for
mitosis.
– Proteins are made
that will move and
separate the
chromosomes.

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 9.3 Mitosis-cell replication

● The two events of cell division

– Mitosis
● Separating the chromosome copies into two
new nuclei
● Occurs in four phases that are continuous with
one another.
– Cytokinesis
● Dividing the cytoplasm into two new cells that
will house the new nuclei

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 Prophase

● The thin, tangled

chromatin gradually
coils and thickens.
– Becomes visible as
separate chromosomes,
each with two sister
chromatids
● Nucleus disassembles.
● Nucleolus is no longer
visible.

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 Late prophase
● Spindle fibers attach to
chromosomes at their
centromeres.
– Spindles are made of
microtubules.
● In animals, they form
from the centrioles.
(p. 82)
– Asters form only
in animal cells.
(167)
– Will move chromosomes
around.
– The differences of plant
and animal cell division
(see p. 167)
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 Metaphase

● The spindle fibers move the chromosomes so

that they are all arranged at the middle of the
cell.
– This is called the equatorial plate.
– Chromosomes complete this process at
metaphase.
● In late metaphase, the centromeres begin to
breakdown.
– Sister chromatids begin to separate.

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 Metaphase

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 Anaphase
● Sister chromatids separate and move toward
opposite poles.
– Once the sister chromatids are separated, they
are known as daughter chromosomes.
● What moves the sister chromatids to
opposite poles?
– The poles begin to move farther apart.
– The kinetochore (proteins attached at the
centromere) pulls the chromatid along the spindle
fiber.

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 Kinetochores

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 Anaphase

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 Telophase
● Spindle fibers
disassemble.
● Nuclear membranes
form around the two
new sets of
chromosomes.
● Chromatin uncoils.
● Nucleolus reforms.
● The daughter cells
enter interphase again.

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 Cytokinesis
● Separates the two new
nuclei into new cells
● Roughly divides the
cytoplasm and its contents
in half
● Animal cells
– Membrane forms a
cleavage furrow.
– Cell pinches into two.
● Plant cells
– Cell plate is formed.
– A new cell wall is built,
18 separating the nuclei.
 9.4 Controlling cell division
● Cells gather information about themselves
and their environment in order to decide
whether or not to divide.
● A cell decides whether to proceed through
the cell cycle at checkpoints.
– Cells evaluate their genetic health, their location
in the body and the body’s need for more cells.
● Poor genetic health, wrong location in the body
or over-crowding will cause the cell to wait
before dividing.
● Good genetic health will trigger the cell to
proceed with division.
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 Genes regulate the cell cycle
● Cells use several proteins to function as checkpoints.
– These proteins make the decision to proceed through the
cell cycle or to stop.
● Two classes of genes that code for checkpoint
proteins.
– Proto-oncogenes
● Code for proteins that encourage cell division
– Tumor-suppressor genes
● Code for proteins that discourage cell division
● The balance of these two types of proteins tells the
cell whether or not to proceed with cell division.

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 p53, a tumor-suppressor gene
● Near the end of G1, the p53 protein identifies if the
cell’s DNA is damaged.
– If the DNA is healthy, the p53 allows the cell to divide.
– If the DNA is damaged, p53 activates other proteins that will
repair the DNA.
● If the damage is too severe, p53 will trigger the events
of apoptosis (cell suicide).
● Mutations in the p53 gene
– Lead to cells that will proceed through the cell cycle with
damaged DNA
– Lead to an accumulation of mutations
● If the mutations occur in proto-oncogenes or tumor-
suppressor genes, then cancer will result.
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 p53, a tumor-suppressor gene

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 9.5 Cancer
● Cancer is caused by a failure to control cell
division.
– Leads to cells that divide too frequently
– p53 is mutated in 40% of all cancers (p.171)
● Leads to other mutations that result in cancer

● Mutagens are agents that damage DNA.

● Carcinogens are mutagens that cause
mutations that lead to cancer.
– Cigarette smoke
● Has been linked directly to p53 mutations

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 Fig. 9.12 Smoking-causes cancer

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 Causes of cancer

● Radiation
– X rays and gamma rays
– Ultraviolet light

● Chemicals (see p. 171)

● Viruses (see p. 171)
– Causing cancer (see Fig. 9.13)

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 Fig. 9.13 Viruses-causes cancer

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 ● Cancer is genetically based. Predispositions
to developing in the following cancers have
been shown to be inherited:
– Leukemias, Lung cancer,… (see p. 172)

These cell masses are tumors that can interfere with

normal body functions.
● Benign tumors are cell masses that do not
fragment and spread beyond its original area of
growth.
● Malignant tumors are cell masses that
fragment, spread and invade other tissues.
– This process is called metastasis (Fig. 9.15)

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 Malignant tumors metastasize

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 Metastasize ( 轉移 ) Via Blood
Vessel
Figure 9.15

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 Treatment strategies-Surgery

● Surgical removal
– Once tumors are identified they can be
surgically removed.
– Skin cancers and breast cancers are
frequently treated this way.
– If the cancer is spread diffusely, the
surgery is not an option.
For example, Leukemia (see p. 172)
For example, removing brain cancer can
severely damage the brain
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 Fig. 9.16 The Surgical Treatment of Cancer

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 Treatment options-chemotherapy
and radiation therapy
● Chemotherapy
– Some drugs will target rapidly dividing cells.
– Normal cells that divide rapidly will suffer as well.
● Weakens the immune system (given antibiotics, p. 173)
● Causes hair loss, intestinal disorder
● Radiation therapy
– Uses x-rays or gamma rays directed at the tumor
to kill the cancerous cells
– Whole-body radiation is used to treat leukemia.
(p. 173)
● Can lead to radiation sickness (p. 173)
– Nausea, hair loss, intestinal disorder etc.

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 9.6 Determination and differentiation
● During sexual reproduction, fertilization of an egg, by
a sperm, results in a single-celled zygote.
– The zygote undergoes mitosis to develop into an
adult.
– As mitosis occurs, cells must become specific cell
types.
● All cells are genetically identical. (see p. 173)
● Cells differ in the genes they express.
● Determination is the process a cell goes through to
select which genes it will express, determining the type
of cell it will become. (see p. 173)
● When a cell is fully developed into a specific type of cell,
it is said to be differentiated.

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 Determination and differentiation of
skin cells

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 9.7 Cell division and sexual
reproduction (see p. 174)

● Egg and sperm only have half of the individual’s

genetic information.
– When egg and sperm join during fertilization, the zygote
receives half of its chromosomes from the egg and half from
the sperm.
● Zygote have two sets of chromosomes.
– Diploid
● Gametes have one set of chromosomes.
– Haploid
● Meiosis makes haploid gametes.
– Eggs are made in ovaries (animals) and pistils (plants).
– Sperm are made in testes (animals) and anthers (plants).

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 Life cycles involving meiosis and
mitosis

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 Pairs of chromosomes
● Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes.
– One set from each parent
● Homologous chromosomes (see p. 174)
– Have the same order of genes along their DNA
– Are the same size; have the centromere in the
same location
– One chromosome in the pair came from mom; the
other came from dad.
● Non-homologous chromosomes
– Have different genes on their DNA

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 A pair of homologous chromosomes

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 Different species have different
numbers of chromosomes

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 9.8 Meiosis-Gamete production

● Involves two cell divisions

– Produces four haploid cells
– Meiosis I is the first division.
● Preceded by DNA replication
● Reduction division
– Chromosome number reduced from diploid to haploid
– Meiosis II is the second division.

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 Meiosis

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 Meiosis I: Prophase I
● Prophase I
– Synapsis occurs
● Homologous chromosomes move toward one
another and associate with one another.
● While associated homologouss experience
crossing over (see p. 176)
– Homologous trade equivalent sections of
DNA.
– Mixes up the genes that are passed to the
next generation

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 Meiosis I: Metaphase I

● Metaphase I:
– The synapsed pairs
of homologous
chromosomes are
moved into position
at the equatorial
plate.

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 Meiosis I: Anaphase I
● Homologous pairs separate.
– Homologs move to opposite poles.
● Sister chromatids do not separate at this point.
(p. See 177)
– This process is called segregation.
● Chromosome number is reduced from diploid
to haploid.
● Since homologous pairs line up randomly at
the equatorial plate.
– Each pair separates independently of the others.
● This is called independent assortment.
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 Anaphase I

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 Meiosis I: Telophase I

● Chromatin uncoils.
● Nuclear membrane
reforms.
● Nucleoli reappear.
● Cytokinesis divides the
two haploid nuclei into
two daughter cells.
– Each chromosome still
contains two sister
chromatids.

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 Meiosis I

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 Meiosis II: Prophase II

● Similar to prophase in
mitosis
● Nuclear membrane is
disassembled.
● Spindle begins to form.

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 Meiosis II: Metaphase II

● Similar to metaphase in
mitosis
● Chromosomes are lined
up at the equatorial
plate.

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 Meiosis II: Anaphase II

● Centromeres divide.
● Sister chromatids
separate.
– Now called daughter
chromosomes

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 Meiosis II: Telophase II

● Similar to telophase and cytokinesis in mitosis

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 Summary of meiosis II

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 Mitosis vs. meiosis

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 9.9 Genetic diversity-
The advantage of sex
● Sexually reproducing organisms
– Need two individuals to reproduce
– Reproduce more slowly than asexually reproducing
organisms
– Have large genetic diversity
● When environmental conditions change, they are
more likely to survive (as compared to asexually
reproducing organisms). (p. 181~182)
● Genetic diversity is due to a difference in genes.
– Specific versions of genes are called alleles.
(see p. 182)

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 Genetic diversity-
The advantage of sex

● Five factors create genetic diversity by

creating new alleles, or new combinations of
alleles.
– Mutation
– Crossing-over
– Segregation
– Independent assortment
– Fertilization

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 Mutations

● Mutations are changes in the nucleotide

sequence of DNA.
● This creates new alleles.
● New alleles lead to new forms of proteins.
● Increases genetic diversity

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 Crossing-over

● The exchange of equivalent portions of DNA

between homologous chromosomes
● Occurs during prophase I when
chromosomes are synapsed
● Allows new combinations of genetic
information to occur
– Each gamete then receives some of your
mother’s and some of your father’s genes on
each chromosome.
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 Synapsis and crossing-over

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 The results of crossing-over

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 Crossing-over separates linked genes
(see p. 182)
● The closer genes are
together on a
chromosome the less
likely they will be
separated by crossing-
over.
– These genes will be
inherited together.
● The farther genes are
apart on a chromosome
the more likely they will
be separated by
crossing-over.
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 Segregation
● Alleles on homologous chromosomes
separate during anaphase I.
– Each parent will contribute one allele of each
gene to each gamete.
– Consider a person who has two alleles for insulin.
● Half of its gametes would get the gene for functional
insulin.
● Half of its gametes would get the gene for nonfunctional
gametes.
– If both parents contributes a gamete that
carried diabetes, their child would be
diabetic.
• Segregation increases genetic diversity by allowing
parents to produce children that are genetically different
from their parents and from their siblings (i.e., brothers
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and sisters).
 Independent assortment

● The segregation of homologous

chromosomes is independent of how other
homologous pairs segregate.
● Consider two pairs of chromosomes. (see p.
183)
– Given the two ways these pairs can line up on the
equatorial plate,
● there are four possible combinations of
chromosomes in gametes.

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 Independent assortment

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 Fertilization

● Due to the large number of possible gametes

resulting from independent assortment,
segregation, mutation and crossing-over,
– a large number of different offspring can be
generated from two parents.
● Since gametes join randomly
– the combinations of alleles is nearly infinite.

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 Nondisjunction and chromosome
abnormalities
● Nondisjunctions occur when homologous
chromosomes do not separate during cell
division.
– Frequently results in the death of the cells
– Some abnormal gametes live.
● When these gametes participate in fertilization, the
offspring will have an abnormal number of
chromosomes.
– Monosomy describes a cell that has just one of a
given pair of chromosomes.
– Trisomy describes a cell that has three copies of a
given chromosome.
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 Nondisjunction during
gametogenesis

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 Karyotypes are a picture of a person’s
chromosomes

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 A karyotype can reveal trisomy 21

● Down’s syndrome
– Three copies of
chromosome #21
– Results in 47
chromosomes
instead of 46
– Symptoms include:
● Thickened eyelids
● Mental
impairment
● Faulty speech

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Fig. 9.39 Down Syndrome as a Function of a Mother’s Age
(See p. 187)

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