Stem Cells SUMMARY

Adult stem cell Embryonic stem cell

Benefits No ethical issues. If taken Easier to remove from tissue.
from the person who is Can produce a wide range of
being treated then no specialised cells.
problem with rejection.
Drawbacks Difficult to identify and Ethical issues with destroying
remove from tissue (they embryo to get stem cells.
are mixed with
differentiated cells in the
tissue). Can only produce
a limited range of
specialised cells.
Risks There is a risk of rejection Differentiated cells may be
if the stem cells are taken rejected when used in
from another person. treatment, as the cells come
May cause cancer. from a different person rather
than the patient.
SB2e: THE BRAIN

Pgs: 38&39

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The Brain
The human brain is one of the most important organs in a human body. It helps us think, reason, remember, and
learn new things.

Here are 10 interesting facts about the Human brain:

1.The human brain has a mass of about 1.5 kg.
2.It comprises 60% of fat and is one of the fattest organs in the human body.
3.Human brain has the capacity to generate approximately 23 watts of power when awake.
4.Of the total blood and oxygen that is produced in our body, the brain gets 20% of it.
5.When the blood supply to the brain stops, it is almost after 8-10 seconds that the brain starts losing the
consciousness.
6.The brain is capable of surviving for 5 to 6 minutes only if it doesn’t get oxygen after which it dies.
7.The blood vessels that are present in the brain are almost 160000 km in length.
8.There are 100 billion neurons present in the brain.
9.In early pregnancy, the neurons develop extremely fast.
10. As we grow older, we are unable to remember new things. According to researchers it is because the brain is
unable to filter and remove old memories which prevent it from absorbing new ideas.

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The brain controls complex behaviour.

It is made of billions (about 100 billion) of interconnected neurones and has different regions that carry
out different functions.

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BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT
When an embryo is 3 weeks old, stem cells in the brain area start to differentiate into nerve cells (neurones)
to form the brain.

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Why 2 hemispheres?
◦ Each hemisphere has a slightly different
function.

◦ The left side of the brain is responsible for

controlling the right side of the body. It
also performs tasks that have to do with
logic, such as in science and mathematics.

◦ The right hemisphere coordinates the left

side of the body, and performs tasks that
have do with creativity and the arts.
Understanding the brain
◦ The brain is extremely difficult to
study and understand

◦ We study the brain of animals

◦ The different areas of the brain can

be studied to understand what each
area does
◦ The three main areas are:
a) cerebral cortex (cerebrum)
b) cerebellum
c) medulla oblongata

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Brain mapping

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Phineas Gage https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kph4_xYSGgs&ab_channel=Ripley%27sBelieveItorNot%21
◦ Phineas Gage was a hard-working and friendly man before his accident.
◦ The front part of his cerebral cortex was severely damaged after his accident.
◦ His personality changed and he became lazy and bad-tempered (makes sense - see slide before).

◦ The cerebral cortex is responsible for many actions including:

◦ Emotions
◦ Learning
◦ Personality
◦ Feelings

• Also:
-> the cerebral cortex makes up
80% of the brain.

-> it is divided into two cerebral

hemispheres.
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 Cerebellum
◦ Located at the base of the brain.

◦ It is divided into two halves and controls

balance and posture.

◦ It also coordinates the timing and fine control of

muscle activity, making sure that movements are
smooth.

◦ Many musicians have developed changes in the

cerebellum, including an increase in its size.

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Medulla oblongata and spinal cord
◦ The medulla oblongata controls your heart rate and your
breathing rate.

◦ It is also responsible for reflexes such as vomiting, sneezing

and swallowing.

◦ The mass of neurones that make up the medulla

oblongata connect the brain to the spinal cord.

◦ The spinal cord is about the width of a finger and consists of

many nerves (bundles of neurones). These carry information
between the brain and the rest of the body.

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The structure of nerves
◦ Nerves are bundles of neurones that carry
information between the brain and the rest
of the body.

◦ The nerves have blood vessels to ensure a

good blood supply for aerobic respiration
(oxygen).

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 What do you think?
◦ Alcohol consumption can affect a person’s balance. Suggest which part of the brain is probably
affected by alcohol.

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Summary
Area of the brain Functions
Cerebral cortex Divided into cerebral hemispheres and different
sections that control emotions(1), speech(1),
vision, taste, smell and all the senses (1),
memories (1), and conscious thought (1).

Cerebellum Controls balance (1) and posture(1).

Coordinates muscle movement(1).

Medulla oblongata Controls heart rate(1).

Controls breathing rate(1).
Controls reflexes.(1)
Connects the brain to the spinal cord.(1)

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Why all these wrinkles/ridges? (bonus)
Why all these wrinkles/ridges/folds? (bonus)
◦ The more wrinkled a brain gets, the bigger the surface of the cortex becomes.
◦ The human brain is especially wrinkled. If you look at a human brain, you only see about a third of its
surface–the other two-thirds are hidden in its folds.
◦ If you could spread it out flat on a table, it would be 2500 cm2(a small tablecloth).
◦ A shrew’s brain surface would be 0.8 cm2.

◦ The folds in the human brain add to its surface area to maximise the number of cells that can pack into our
skulls, and increase the quantity of information we can process.
Activity

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SB2f:BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
PROBLEMS

Pgs: 40&41

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Brain surgery
◦ During brain surgery, electrodes can apply
electrical currents to the brain.

◦ If patients are awake, they can be asked to

describe what they feel.

◦ A current may also make a patient do something

or stop an action occurring. This allows the
functions of brain parts to be investigated.

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Medical Imaging Technology
◦ Medical imaging technology allows research into brain
activity and linking structures of the brain to their
functions without the need for surgery. This allows to
look deeper inside the brain.

◦ Medical imaging technology includes:

1) CT (computerised tomography) scans
2) PET (positron emission tomography) scans
3) MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans

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CT (or CAT) Scans
◦ Computerised tomography (CT) scans use
X-ray beams to image the brain.
◦ Detectors measure how much of the X-rays
are absorbed by the brain.
◦ Denser material absorb more X-rays and
appear more white.
◦ Forms an image of the brain as a series of
‘slices’.

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CT or CAT Scans
◦ Observed to diagnose tumors or other
diseases.
◦ Also used to study what different parts of
the brain do.
◦ Differences in the shapes in the brain can
be linked to differences in the way people
think and act.

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 CT or CAT Scans

CT scans can identify major brain structures

and detect issues like tumors, bleeding, or
strokes (bleeding of arteries in the brain).

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PET Scans
 PET scans show brain activity.
 Radioactive glucose is injected into the brain.
 Active areas require more glucose for respiration so
the cells in active areas uptake more glucose.
 The radioactive atoms produce gamma rays, which
are detected by the scanner.
 More gamma rays come from parts containing
more active cells.

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PET Scans
◦ Carrying out activities during a PET scan causes specific areas to become more active.
◦ Those areas use more radioactive glucose and emit more gamma rays.

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Scan Rays used Purpose
CT X-rays Image the brain or other
parts of the body

PET Gamma rays Seeing brain activity

(radioactive glucoe)

MRI Magnetic field Image the brain or other

parts of the body

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MRI (bonus)
◦ Certain atomic nuclei are able to absorb and emit radio frequency energy when placed in an
external magnetic field.
◦ In clinical and research MRI, hydrogen atoms are most often used to generate a detectable
radio-frequency signal that is received by antennas in close proximity to the anatomy being
examined.
◦ Hydrogen atoms are naturally abundant in people and other biological organisms,
particularly in water and fat. For this reason, most MRI scans essentially map the location
of water and fat in the body.
◦ Pulses of radio waves excite the nuclear spin energy transition, and magnetic field gradients
localize the signal in space. By varying the parameters of the pulse sequence, different
contrasts may be generated between tissues based on the relaxation properties of the
hydrogen atoms therein.
Spinal Cord Damage
◦ When the spinal cord is damaged, fewer or no
signals are sent between the brain and the body.

 Quadriplegia, is paralysis caused by illness or

injury that results in the partial or total loss of use
of all four limbs and torso.

 Paraplegia is similar but does not affect the arms. 

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 Spinal Cord Damage
◦ Adult stem cells cannot differentiate into neurones,
so new neurones cannot be made to repair spinal cord
damage.

◦ Wires can be used to supply electricity and stimulate

nerves and muscles below areas of damage, but
patients do not regain movement or feeling.

◦ Stem cell treatments are being developed so perhaps

one day spinal cord damage can be repaired.

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Brain Tumors
Tumors = formed because cells divided uncontrollably
◦ The tumors can grow and squash other parts of the brain, stopping them from working

◦ Tumors can be detected by CT scans and different treatments can be used to remove them:
◦ Surgery can be used to cut out the cells
◦ Radiotherapy uses high energy X-ray beams to kill cancer cells
◦ Chemotherapy uses drugs that kill actively dividing cells and because cancer cells divide
rapidly it kills them faster than normal body cells

◦ All these treatments can damage the brain and the body while chemotherapy may not
work due to the blood-brain barrier (see next).

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The brain is surrounded by a semi-permeable
membrane known as the blood-brain barrier. Problems during
Chemotherapy: The
Natural filter formed as the capillary walls in blood-brain barrier
the brain are fit very closely together.

◦ Glucose and oxygen can easily pass into the

brain so the neurones in the brain can respire
aerobically.

Problem:
◦ Some chemotherapy molecules cannot pass
through this barrier.

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Activities

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