Professional Documents
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified on the basis of
Size
Speed
Processing Power
Price
COMPUTERS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THE
FOLLOWING CATEGORIES
Microcomputer or Personal Computer
Minicomputer
Mainframe Computer
Supercomputer
Embedded Computer
MICROCOMPUTERS
Microcomputer is also called personal computers.
It was introduced in 1970.
It is designed to be used by one person at a time.
It consists of a processor, memory and one or more input,
output and storage devices.
It also often contains a communication device.
The price of personal computer is from several hundreds to
several thousand dollars.
Most commonly used personal computers are PC and Apple.
The major types of personal computers are desktop &
portable computer.
MINICOMPUTERS
Minicomputer is larger and more powerful than PC.
It was introduced in 1960s.
It generally consists of two or processors.
It is more reliable than desktop computer.
Minicomputers are also called mid-range servers.
It is more costly than micro computers.
Minicomputer can serve up to several hundreds connected computers
simultaneously.
It is normally accessed by users through PC or terminal.
It is also called dumb terminal.
It has no processing power and cannot work as stand-alone computer.
It has to be connected to a server.
E.g. Prime 9955, HP 3000, AS 400, VAX 8600.
USE OF MINICOMPUTERS
Minicomputers are often used by small and
medium-sized companies or departments.
They provide centralized store of
information and computer programs.
MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
A mainframe computer is a large computer in terms of price, power and speed.
It was introduced in 1975.
It is more powerful than mini computer.
It consists of multiple processor.
It is specially designed to perform multiple tasks for multiple users simultaneously.
It is designed for high reliability.
It often runs twenty four hours a day.
It can be serviced and upgraded while it is running.
It is also known as enterprise server or high-ended server.
It can serve several thousand users simultaneously.
These computers can store large amounts of data, information and programs.
The users access a mainframe computer through a terminal or personal computer.
The price of mainframe computer is several thousand dollars and can be up to several
million dollars.
IBM, Sun and Unisys are leading manufacturers of mainframe computers
E.g. IBM S-390, NEC 610, DEC 10, IBM System Z10.
SUPERCOMPUTERS
Supercomputer is the fastest and the most powerful computer.
It is the biggest in size and the most expensive n price than any other
computer.
It was first developed in early 1970s.
It is used to perform complex tasks.
It has a very large storage capacity and can store several thousand
times more data than an average desktop computer.
It also consumes so much energy.
It can process trillions of instructions in one second.
The modern supercomputer consists of thousands of microprocessors.
The cost of one super computer can be up to several billion dollars.
E.g. Roadrunner, Blue Gene, Deep Blue, ASCI White.
USES OF SUPERCOMPUTERS
Supercomputer is mostly used for weather Predictions,
weapon design and atomic research etc.
Supercomputer is also used in business and industry field.
Aircraft manufacturers use it to simulate aircraft and check
its performance.
Governments use super computer for different calculations
and heavy jobs.
Many Hollywood movies use it for animation purposes.
HARDWARE
The physical parts of the computer are called
hardware.
The user can see and touch the hardware.
SOFTWARE
A set of instructions given to the computer to solve a problem is called
software.
Software is also called program.
Different software are used to solve different problems.
A computer works according to the instructions written in software.
Software is logical part of a computer.
Software cannot be touched.
The hardware cannot perform any task without software.
Software is usually stored on hard disk or CDs.
It is loaded from the disk to RAM as and when required.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
The computer software are broadly divided
into two categories.
System software
Application software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is a type of computer
program that is designed to run a computer's
hardware and application programs.
If we think of the computer system as a
layered model, the system software is the
interface between the hardware and user
applications.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Applications software (also called end-user
programs) include such things as database
programs, word processors, Web browsers
and spreadsheets.
TYPES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Systems software includes the programs that
are dedicated to managing
the computer itself, such as the operating
system, file management, utilities, Device
Driver and disk operating system(or DOS).
OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS)
is system software that manages computer
hardware and software resources and
provides common services for computer
programs. All computer programs,
excluding firmware, require an operating
system to function.
DEVICE DRIVER
A device driver is a program that controls a
particular type of device that is attached to
your computer. There are device drivers for
printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, diskette
drives, and so on. When you buy an
operating system, many device drivers are
built into the product.
UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utility software is system software designed
to help analyze, configure, optimize or
maintain a computer. It is used to support
the computer infrastructure in contrast to
application software, which is aimed at
directly performing tasks that benefit
ordinary users.
LANGUAGE PROCESSOR
A language processor is a software program
designed or used to perform tasks, such as
processing program code to machine
code. Language processors are found
in languages such as Fortran and COBOL
INTERPRETER
In computer science, an interpreter is a
computer program that directly executes, i.e.
performs, instructions written in a
programming or scripting language, without
previously compiling them into a machine
language program.
COMPILER
A compiler is computer software that
transforms computer code written in one
programming language (the source
language) into another computer language
(the target language). Compilers are a type
of translator that support digital devices,
primarily computers.
ASSEMBLER
An assembler is a program that takes basic
computer instructions and converts them
into a pattern of bits that the computer's
processor can use to perform its basic
operations. Some people call these
instructions assembler language and others
use the term assembly language.
TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
General Purpose Application Software.
Special Purpose Application Software.
GENERAL-PURPOSE APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Memory
Primary Memory
RAM
DRAM, SRAM
RAM
(RAMDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is a
temporary memory. In RAM, data or instructions
cannot be stored permanently. When the
computer is turned on, it uses RAM to Write or
Read data and programs. When the computer is
turned off, all the programs and data are erased
from the RAM. RAM is, therefore, also known as
volatile memory. It is like a chalkboard on which
information is written, read, cleared and
rewritten. RAM is further classified into:
TYPES OF RAM
DRAM(DYNAMIC RAM)
SRAM(STATIC RAM)
DRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. Like a
RAM chip, a DRAM chip stores data in the form of electric
charge or in the form of electronic switches having ON/OFF
states.
In a DRAM chip, the charge tends to decrease with time. This
result in the loss of data in the DRAM. In order to maintain data
in the DRAM chip, the chip is recharged or refreshed frequently.
To recharge a DRAM, a small amount of electrical energy is used.
During the refreshing process, the processor of the computer
cannot read or write data in the DRAM. The recharging process
of the DRAM decreases the processing speed of the computer.
This type of memory was used in old microcomputers.
THE MAIN TWO TYPES OF DRAM
SDRAM
DDR SDRAM
SDRAM
SDRAM stand for synchronous dynamic random
access memory.
SDRAM is a high speed semiconductor memory.
It is an improved form of the older DRAM.
SDRAM operates synchronously, which means
that it operates in sync with the system data bus.
It can operate at much greater speeds than non-
synchronous RAM
DDR SDRAM
It is an improved SDRAM which allows a
computer to transfer data at twice the speed.
It has improved SDRAM which allows a
computer to transfer data at twice the speed.
It has improved memory clock speed as
compared to simple SDRAM.
It reads or writes two consecutive words per
clock cycle
PHYSICAL DIFFERENCE
TECHNICAL DIFFERENCE
SRAM
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. The
SRAM chip requires more power as compared to the
DRAM does not need to recharged frequently. The
computer processor does not have to wait to store data
or to read data from the SRAM chip during processing.
The SRAM is faster as compared to DRAM.
In large computers and also in fast microcomputers,
the SRAM is used. The SRAM chip increases the
processing speed of the computer. It is about 10 times
faster than the DRAM. It is also more expensive.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. In this type of memory instructions are stored
permanently. The instructions written in this memory can only be read but cannot be
changed or deleted. It is not possible to write new information or instruction into the
ROM. This is the reason why it is called Read Only Memory. When the power is turned
off, the instructions stored in ROM are not lost. The ROM is, therefore, also called
nonvolatile memory.
The instructions are written into the ROM chips at the time of manufacturing. These
instructions become permanent inside the ROM. When the computer is switched on,
the instructions in the ROM are automatically loaded into the memory of the computer.
The processors take actions on these instructions. The main functions of these
instructions are:
To check different units of computer system during booting process.
To load the operating system into the computer memory.
The instructions that carry out these functions are stored in the ROM of the computer
and ate also called micro-programs. Micro-programs are also known as the Firmware.
The micro-programs or instructions in the ROM cannot be modified by the users.
TYPES OF ROM
Different types of Read Only Memories are
used in computer system. These are:
PROM (Programmable ROM)
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable ROM)
PROM
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only
Memory. In PROM, the users can write his own
instruction but only once. However, once a
program has been stored in the PROM chip, it
cannot be changed or erased I.e. the PROM
becomes a ROM. PROM is also a nonvolatile
memory.
If there is an error in writing the instructions
into a PROM, the error cannot be removed and the
PROM becomes unusable.
EPROM
EPROM stands for Erasable Programming Read Only
memory. A computer user can erase instructions or data
stored in the EPROM by exposing it into ultraviolet
light and new programs can also be written into the
chip. If there is an error in writing the instructions /data
into the EPROM, the user can erase the previous
contents from the EPROM and can write new
instructions.
When an EPROM is in used, the instructions stored in
EPROM can only be read and remain permanent in this
chip unless erased.
EEPROM
EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable
Programming Read Only Memory. In this
memory, instructions can be erased and
written with the help of electrical pulses.
In EEPROM a computer user can write
instructions or data inside the EEPROM with
special electrical pulses. If there is an error in
writing the instructions, the user can erase
the contents electrically.
CACHE MEMORY:
Address Registers
Buffer Register
Instruction Register
Program Control Register
Accumulator Register
Input/output Register
Status Register
Stack Pointer Register
ADDRESS REGISTER:
Control unit is the brain of computer. It decodes the instructions and executes them one by one. It also
coordinates and controls the working of the processor and all input/output units of the computer.
Control Units works in the following sequence:
When a computer program is loaded into the memory of the computer, each instructions of the program is
stored in the Address Register.
Controls Unit reads the address of first instruction loaded in the main memory through the address
register. It fetches the instruction from the main memory through the Buffer Register and sends it to the
Instruction Register.
The instruction register decodes the instruction and executes it by sending command signals to the related
units or circuits. If the instruction of the program is an arithmetic/logic instruction, it sends command
signals to the ALU to perform the operation.
The Counter Register also called the program counter. Points to the instruction that is to be executed next.
It counts the instruction of the program that have been executed. The value in the counter register increases
by 1 after executing an instruction.
In this ways all the instructions of the computer program are executed one by one.
A Controls Unit also coordinates the functions of input/output device. It receives input from input devices
through input/output register and stores it into the memory. If an instruction is to get input from an input
unit during program execution, the control unit decodes the instruction and sends the command signal to
the input unit. Similarly, the control unit sends the command signal to an output devise if the instruction
wants to send the output to the output device.
ACCUMULATOR REGISTER:
The accumulator register stores date values so that logical or
arithmetic operations can be carried out. It is part of ALU.
Accumulator takes data values from RAM through MBR during
program execution. It also stores the results of the last processing
step. It returns the results of the last processing step back to the
MBR. The MBR then stores the results into the main memory.
For example, if two numbers in locations X and Y are to be added
and the result stored in Z, following operations are carried out:
Contents of location X are loaded into accumulator,
Contents of location Y are added to the contents of accumulator,
Contents of accumulator are stored in location Z.
WORKING OF ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:
ALU is a part of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It performs arithmetic and
logic operations. It works under the direction of the CPU in the following
ways:
The data value that is to be processed is loaded from the main memory into the
Accumulator via MBR. This step is called “loading” of data from main memory
into the Accumulator.
The ALU then performs the arithmetic or logical operation on the data in the
Accumulator according to the given instruction. The results are stored in the
Accumulator.
The output stored in the Accumulator is transferred to the main memory via
MBR. This step is called “storing” of data from Accumulator to main memory.
If a logical operation is to be carried out, the CU sends data to the ALU via
MBR. The ALU compares the data and sends result back to the CU in
True/False form. The CU then executes next statements according to the
results returned by the ALU.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
Secondary storage commonly refers to
nonvolatile storage devices, such as hard
disk drives (HDDs).
It is used for storing the data permanently.
The capacity of these devices is very high. It
goes to terabytes.
SEQUENTIAL ACCESS AND DIRECT ACCESS STORAGE.