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A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
1
Divide-and-Conquer Technique (cont.)
a problem of size n
subproblem 1 subproblem 2
of size n/2 of size n/2
a solution to a solution to
subproblem 1 subproblem 2
a solution to
the original problem
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
2
Divide-and-Conquer Examples
Sorting: mergesort and quicksort
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
3
General Divide-and-Conquer Recurrence
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
4
Mergesort Example
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
8 3 2 9 71 5 4
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
3 8 2 9 1 7 4 5
2 3 8 9 1 4 5 7
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
5
Mergesort
Split array A[0..n-1] in two about equal halves and make
copies of each half in arrays B and C
Sort arrays B and C recursively
Merge sorted arrays B and C into array A as follows:
• Repeat the following until no elements remain in one of
the arrays:
– compare the first elements in the remaining
unprocessed portions of the arrays
– copy the smaller of the two into A, while
incrementing the index indicating the unprocessed
portion of that array
• Once all elements in one of the arrays are processed,
copy the remaining unprocessed elements from the
other array into A.
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
6
Pseudocode of Mergesort
7
Pseudocode of Merge
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
8
Analysis of Mergesort
Number of key comparisons – recurrence:
C(n) = …
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
9
Analysis of Mergesort
Number of key comparisons – recurrence:
How to solve?
10
General Divide-and-Conquer Recurrence
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
11
Analysis of Mergesort
All cases have same efficiency: Θ(n log n)
Number of comparisons in the worst case is close to
theoretical minimum for comparison-based sorting:
- Theoretical min: log2 n! ≈ n log2 n - 1.44n
Space requirement:
• Book’s algorithm?
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
12
Analysis of Mergesort
All cases have same efficiency: Θ(n log n)
Number of comparisons in the worst case is close to
theoretical minimum for comparison-based sorting:
- Theoretical min: log2 n! ≈ n log2 n - 1.44n
Space requirement:
• Book’s algorithm: n + n Sum(1+1/2+1/4+…) = n + n Θ(2)= Θ(3n)
• Can be done Θ(2n) : Don’t copy in sort; just specify bounds, copy
into extra array on merge, then copy back
– Any other space required?
• Can be implemented in place. How …
Can be implemented without recursion (bottom-up)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
13
Mergesort Example
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
8 3 2 9 71 5 4
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
3 8 2 9 1 7 4 5
2 3 8 9 1 4 5 7
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
14
Quicksort
Select a pivot (partitioning element) – here, the first element
Rearrange the list so that all the elements in the first s
positions are smaller than or equal to the pivot and all the
elements in the remaining n-s positions are larger than or
equal to the pivot (see next slide for an algorithm)
A[i]p A[i]p
Exchange the pivot with the last element in the first (i.e., )
subarray — the pivot is now in its final position
Sort the two subarrays recursively
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
15
Quicksort Algorithm
QS (A, l, r)
if l < r then
s = partition (A, l, r)
QS (A, , )
QS (A, , )
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
16
Quicksort Algorithm
QS (A, l, r)
if l < r then
s = partition (A, l, r)
QS (A, l , s-1)
QS (A, s+1, r )
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
17
Hoare’s (Two-way) Partition Algorithm
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
18
Quicksort Example
5 3 1 9 8 2 4 7
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
19
Quicksort Recursion Tree
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 3 1 9 8 2 4 7
0 .. 7 / s=4
0 .. 3 / s=x
0 .. s-1 / s=?
s+1 .. 3
5 .. 7 / s=y
5 .. y-1 / s=?
y+1 .. 7 / s=?
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
20
Analysis of Quicksort
Recurrences:
Best case:
Worst case:
Average case:
Performance:
Best case:
Worst case:
Average case:
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
21
Analysis of Quicksort
Recurrences:
Best case: T(n) = T(n/2) + Θ (n)
Worst case: T(n) = T(n-1) + Θ (n)
Average case:
Performance:
Best case:
Worst case:
Average case:
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
22
Analysis of Quicksort
Recurrences:
Best case: T(n) = T(n/2) + Θ (n)
Worst case: T(n) = T(n-1) + Θ (n)
Average case:
Performance:
Best case: split in the middle — Θ(n log n)
Worst case: sorted array! — Θ(n2)
Average case: random arrays — Θ(n log n)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
23
Analysis of Quicksort
Problems:
• Duplicate elements
Improvements:
• better pivot selection: median of three partitioning
• switch to insertion sort on small sub-arrays
• elimination of recursion – How?
These combine to 20-25% improvement
24
Binary Tree Algorithms
Efficiency: Θ(n)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
25
Binary Tree Algorithms
Efficiency: Θ(n)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
26
Binary Tree Algorithms (cont.)
TL TR
h(T) = ??
Efficiency: Θ(n)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
27
Binary Tree Algorithms (cont.)
TL TR
Efficiency: Θ(n)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
28
Multiplication of Large Integers
Consider the problem of multiplying two (large) n-digit integers
represented by arrays of their digits such as:
A = 12345678901357986429 B = 87654321284820912836
29
Multiplication of Large Integers
Consider the problem of multiplying two (large) n-digit integers
represented by arrays of their digits such as:
A = 12345678901357986429 B = 87654321284820912836
30
First Divide-and-Conquer Algorithm
A small example: A B where A = 2135 and B = 4014
A = (21·102 + 35), B = (40 ·102 + 14)
So, A B = (21 ·102 + 35) (40 ·102 + 14)
= 21 40 ·104 + (21 14 + 35 40) ·102 + 35 14
31
Second Divide-and-Conquer Algorithm
32
Example of Large-Integer Multiplication
2135 4014
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
33
Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication
Strassen observed [1969] that the product of two matrices can be
computed as follows:
M 1 + M4 - M5 + M 7 M3 + M5
=
M 2 + M4 M1 + M3 - M2 + M6
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
34
Formulas for Strassen’s Algorithm
M1 = (A00 + A11) (B00 + B11)
35
Analysis of Strassen’s Algorithm
Number of multiplications:
M(n) = 7M(n/2), M(1) = 1
Solution: M(n) = 7log 2n = nlog 27 ≈ n2.807 vs. n3 of brute-force alg.
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
36
Closest-Pair Problem by Divide-and-Conquer
Step 1 Divide the points given into two subsets Pl and Pr by a
vertical line x = m so that half the points lie to the left or on
the line and half the points lie to the right or on the line.
x=m
dl
d
r
d d
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
37
Closest-Pair Driver
CP_Driver(A)
Pre => A(1..n), n > 1, is an array of (X, Y), pairs
Post => Returns distance between closest pair in A
return CP(P, Q)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
38
Closest-Pair Problem by Divide-and-Conquer
CP(P, Q) – Pre=> P (1..n) and Q (1..n) have same points, P is x-sorted, Q y-sorted
• If n <= 3 then return CPBF(P)
• Copy P(1 .. n/2) into PL(1 .. n/2)
• Distribute-copy the same n/2 points from Q into QL (anti-merge)
• Copy P(n/2+1 .. n) into PR(1 .. n/2)
• Distribute-copy the same n/2 points from Q into QR !! Careful
• dL := CP(PL, QL); dR := CP(PR, QR)
• d := min(dL, dR); dsq := d ** 2
• midx = P(n/2).x
• strip(1 .. num) => strip(i) := Q(k) iff | Q(k).x – midx | <= d
• For i in 1 .. Num – 1 loop
• k := i + 1
• while k <= num and (strip(i).y – strip(k).y)**2 < dsq loop
• dsq := min (dsq, (strip(i).x – strip(k).x)**2 + (strip(i).y – strip(k).y)**2)
• k := k + 1
• return sqrt(dsq)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
39
CP Notes
CP(P, Q) – Pre=>P and Q have same points, P x sorted, Q y sorted y, P(1..n), n> 1
• Copy P(1 .. n/2) into PL(1 .. n/2) and same n/2 points from Q into QL
• Copy P(n/2+1 .. n) into PR(1 .. n/2)and same n/2 points from Q into QR
• -- Divide Q based on Q(i).x < P(n/2).x. if Q(k).x = P(n/2).x must send to correct side
• -- N.B. P and Q are sorted. PL, PR, QL, QR are distributed, not resorted.
• dL := CP(PL, QL); dR := CP(PR, QR)
• d := min(dL, dR) ; dsq := d** 2 -- For efficiency
• midx = P(n/2).x -- x value of middle point
• strip(1 .. num) => strip(i) := Q(k) iff | Q(k).x – midx | <= d
• -- Copy points of Q within distance d of middle into strip. Num such points.
• For i in 1 .. Num – 1 loop k := i + 1
• while k <= num and (strip(i).y – strip(k).y)**2 < dsq loop
• dsq := min (dsq, (strip(i).x – strip(k).x)**2 + (strip(i).y – strip(k).y)**2)
• k := k + 1
• return sqrt(dsq)
• -- CP can add sorted P index to points of Q, simplifying distribution!
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
40
CP Assignment: Performance Measurement
CP(P, Q) – Pre=>P and Q have same points, P x sorted, Q y sorted y, P(1..n), n> 1
• -- Count number of calls here, using a GLOBAL VARIABLE
• Copy P(1 .. n/2) into PL(1 .. n/2) and same n/2 points from Q into QL
• Copy P(n/2+1 .. n) into PR(1 .. n/2)and same n/2 points from Q into QR
• dL := CP(PL, QL); dR := CP(PR, QR)
• d := min(dL, dR) ; dsq := d** 2
• midx = P(n/2).x
• strip(1 .. num) => strip(i) := Q(k) iff | Q(k).x – midx | <= d
• For i in 1 .. Num – 1 loop k := i + 1
• while k <= num and (strip(i).y – strip(k).y)**2 < dsq loop
• -- Count number of distance calculations here, using a global
• dsq := min (dsq, (strip(i).x – strip(k).x)**2 + (strip(i).y – strip(k).y)**2)
• k := k + 1
• return sqrt(dsq)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
41
Closest Pair by Divide-and-Conquer (cont.)
Step 2 Find recursively the closest pairs for the left and right
subsets.
Step 3 Set d = min{dl, dr}
We can limit our attention to the points in the symmetric
vertical strip S of width 2d as possible closest pair. (The
points are stored and processed in increasing order of
their y coordinates.)
Step 4 Scan the points in the vertical strip S from the lowest up.
For every point p(x,y) in the strip, inspect points in
in the strip that may be closer to p than d. There can be
no more than 5 such points following p on the strip list!
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
42
Closest Pair by Divide-and-Conquer (cont.)
How many points could be in each strip? n/2
Brute force would look at all n/2 x n/2 pairs
Why can we restrict ourselves to calculating the distance
from each point to the next 5 points
Because only the next 5 points could be within distance d of the
current point. Why?
43
Efficiency of the Closest-Pair Algorithm
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
44
Quickhull Algorithm
Convex hull: smallest convex set that includes given points
Assume points are sorted by x-coordinate values
P1
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
45
Efficiency of Quickhull Algorithm
Finding point farthest away from line P1P2 can be done in
linear time
Time efficiency:
• Assume nu and nl points in upper and lower hulls
• Performance: T(n) = T(?) + T(?) + Θ(?)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
46
Efficiency of Quickhull Algorithm
Finding point farthest away from line P1P2 can be done in
linear time
Time efficiency:
• Assume nu and nl points in upper and lower hulls
• Performance: T(n) = T(nu) + T(nl) + Θ(n)
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
47
Efficiency of Quickhull Algorithm
Finding point farthest away from line P1P2 can be done in
linear time
Time efficiency:
• Assume nu and nl points in upper and lower hulls
• Performance: T(n) = T(nu) + T(nl) + Θ(n)
Can we do better?
A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 3rd ed., Ch. 5 ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. All Rights Reserved.
48
Efficiency of Quickhull Algorithm
Finding point farthest from line P1P2 can be done in Θ(n)
Time efficiency:
• Assume nu and nl points in upper and lower hulls
• Performance: T(n) = T(nu) + T(nl) + Θ(n)
49
Efficiency of Quickhull Algorithm
Finding point farthest from line P1P2 can be done in Θ(n)
Time efficiency:
• worst case: Θ(n2) (as quicksort)
• average case: Θ(n lg n) or Θ(n)
(assuming reasonable distribution of points)
50