Computer Networks

DEPT. OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE

BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY

 LAN
 MAN
 WAN
LAN (Local Area Networks)
• A LAN is a computer network that covers a small area
(home, office, building, campus)
— a few kilometers
• LANs have higher data rates (10Mbps to 40Gbps) as
compared to WANs
• LANs (usually) do not involve leased lines; cabling and
equipments belong to the LAN owner.
• A LAN consists of
— Shared transmission medium
• now so valid today due to switched LANs (for wired LANs), but still valid
for wireless LANs
— regulations for orderly access to the medium
— set of hardware and software for the interfacing devices

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE, BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE, BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY
LAN System Consideration:
• Topology
• Transmission Medium
• Access Control Protocol

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LAN Topologies
• Bus
• Ring
• Star

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 Bus Topology - 1
• Stations attach to linear medium
(bus)
— Via a tap - allows for transmission
and reception
• Transmission propagates in
medium in both directions
• Received by all other stations
— Not addressed stations ignore
• Need to identify target station
— Each station has unique address
— Destination address included in
frame header
• Terminator absorbs frames at
the end of medium
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE, BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY
Bus Topology - 2
• Need to regulate transmission
— To avoid collisions
• If two stations attempt to transmit at same time, signals will
overlap and become garbage
— To avoid continuous transmission from a single station. If one
station transmits continuously, access is blocked for others
• Solution: Transmit Data in small blocks – frames

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Ring Topology
• Repeaters joined by point-
to-point links in closed loop
—Links are unidirectional
—Receive data on one link and retransmit on another
—Stations attach to repeaters
• Data transmitted in frames
—Frame passes all stations in a circular manner
—Destination recognizes address and copies frame
—Frame circulates back to source where it is removed
• Medium access control is needed to determine
when station can insert frame

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE, BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY

Frame
Transmission
Ring LAN

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 Hub or Switch
Star Topology
• Each station connected
directly to central node
— using a full-duplex
(bi-directional) link

• Central node can broadcast (hub)

— Physical star, but logically like bus due to broadcast medium
— Only one station can transmit at a time; otherwise, collision occurs
• Central node can act as frame switch
— retransmits only to destination
— today’s technology

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LAN Protocol Architecture
• Corresponds to lower two layers of OSI model
—But mostly LANs do not follow OSI model
• Current LANs are most likely to be based on
Ethernet protocols developed by IEEE 802
committee
• IEEE 802 reference model
—Logical link control (LLC)
—Media access control (MAC)
—Physical

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LAN Transmission Formats:

• Baseband Transmission Format

• Broadband Transmission Format

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Baseband:
• Digital signals are used
• Frequency division multiplexing is not possible
• Baseband is bi-directional transmission
• Bus Topology
• Short distance signal travelling(1500m)
• Entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a
single signal in a baseband transmission.

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Baseband:
• Advantages:
less expensive
Simple technology
Easier and quicker to install
•Disadvantages:
Single channel
limited capacity
limited distances

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Broadband:
• Analog signals are used
• Transmission of data is unidirectional
• Signal travelling distance is long(10km)
• Frequency division multiplexing(FDM) is possible
• Bus or tree bus topology
• The signals are sent on multiple frequencies and
allow all the multiple signals are sent
simultaneously in broadband transmission.

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Broadband:
• Advantages:
• High capacity
• Multiple traffic type
• Flexible circuit configuration/longer area
• Disadvantages:
• RF modem and amplifier required
• Complex installation and maintenance required
• Double propagation delay

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LAN Access Control Methodology
• CSMA/CD
• Token Passing

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CSMA/CD
• Used in LAN bus topology
• Can send to another station if channel is free
• If channel is busy then it has to wait
• If two station send at a time then collision occurs
• Station sense collision and send Jamming signal
• All station cease transmitting(back off)
• Wait for random period
• Prioritizing the station
• If successive collision occurs then back off is
doubled
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CSMA/CD
Operation

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Token Passing:
• Used in star topology
• A specific packet of data – token
• Token is passed from station to station
• In a same direction
• Token is generated by active monitor
• Each station receive and check the data/address
• After success, destination node acknowledge by setting
frame status flag
• A token cant be used twice
• 16-Mbps token-ring: uses early token release
mechanism

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IEEE 802 Protocol Layers vs.
OSI Model

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IEEE 802 Layers - Physical
• Signal encoding/decoding
• Preamble generation/removal
—for synchronization
• Bit transmission/reception
• Specification for topology and transmission
medium

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802 Layers - Medium Access
Control & Logical Link Control
• OSI layer 2 (Data Link) is divided into two in IEEE 802
— Logical Link Control (LLC) layer
— Medium Access Control (MAC) layer
• LLC layer
— Interface to higher levels
— flow control
— Based on classical Data Link Control Protocols
• MAC layer
— Prepare data for transmission
— Error detection
— Address recognition
— Govern access to transmission medium
• Not found in traditional layer 2 data link control

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LAN Protocols in Context

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Generic MAC & LLC Format
• Actual format differs from protocol to protocol
• MAC layer receives data from LLC layer

• MAC layer detects errors and discards frames

• LLC optionally retransmits unsuccessful frames

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LLC PDU Format

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Logical Link Control(LLC)
—LLC PDU
• Destination Service Access Point (1 octet)
– 7 bits for the address.
– One bit to indicate if it is a group address or not.
• Source Service Access Point (1 octet)
– 7 bits for the address.
– One bit is used to indicate if it is a command or
response.
• LLC Control Field (1 or 2 octets)
– U-format PDUs(8bit)
– I-format PDUs(16bit)
– S-format PDUs(16bit)
• Information Field (variable length)
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LLC Services/Protocols
• Unacknowledged connectionless service (Type 1)
Datagram style service. No flow and error control mechanisms.
Delivery of data is not guaranteed. Unnumbered information PDU
is used to transfer user data.
• Connection-mode service (Type 2)
A logical connection is setup, and flow and error control are provided.
The connection is uniquely identified by the pair of SAPs.
Information PDUs include send and receive sequence numbers for
sequencing and flow control. Supervisory PDUs are used for flow
and error control.
• Acknowledgement connectionless service
Acknowledged datagrams, but no prior logical connection is setup.
Each transmitted PDU is acknowledged. To guard against lost
PDUs, 1-bit sequence number is used.

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Medium Access Control (MAC)
• Traditionally, in LANs data is broadcast
—there is a single medium shared by different users
• We need MAC sublayer for
—orderly and efficient use of broadcast medium
• This is actually a “channel allocation” problem
• Synchronous (static) solutions
—everyone knows when to transmit
• Asynchronous (dynamic) solution
—in response to immediate needs
—Two categories
• Round robin
• Contention
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 Static Channel Allocation
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
• Channel is divided to carry different
signals at different frequencies
• Efficient if there is a constant (one
for each slot) amount of users with
continous traffic
• Problematic if there are less or
more users
• Even if the amount of users = # of
channels, utilization is still low
since typical network traffic is not
uniform and some users may not
have something to send all the
time

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Static Channel Allocation
• Time Division Multiplexing
• Each user is statically
allocated one time slot
— if a particular user
does not have
anything to send, it
remains idle and
wastes the channel for
that period
— A user may not utilize
the whole channel for
a time slot
• Thus, inefficient.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE, BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY

Dynamic Channel Allocation
Categories
• Round robin
—each station has a turn to transmit
• declines or transmits up to a certain data limit
• overhead of passing the turn in either case
—Performs well if many stations have data to transmit
for most of the time
• otherwise passing the turn would cause inefficiency

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Dynamic Channel Allocation
Categories
• Contention
—All stations contend to transmit
—No control to determine whose turn is it
—Stations send data by taking risk of collision (with
others’ packets)
• however they understand collisions by listening to the
channel, so that they can retransmit
—There are several contention-based methods
—In general, good for bursty traffic
• which is the typical traffic types for most networks
—Efficient under light or moderate load
—Performance is bad under heavy load

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MAC Overview:

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LAN Connection
• LAN interconnection factors
—Technologies (protocol)
—Distance
—Volume of communication
• Equipment types
—Bridges
—Switches
—Routers
—Brouters
—Gateways

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Bridges
• Connects networks with same rules or protocol
• OSI layer 2
• Simple and high speed
• Combination of hardware and software

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Bridges
• Need to expand beyond single LAN
• Interconnection to other LANs and WANs
• Use Bridge or Router (Switches can also be used)
• Bridge is simpler
—Connects similar LANs
—Identical protocols for physical and link layers
—Minimal processing
• Router is more general purpose
—Interconnect various LANs and WANs

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Functions of a Bridge
• Read all frames transmitted on one LAN and
accept those addressed to any station on the
other LAN
• Retransmit each frame on second LAN
• Do the same the other way round

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Bridge Operation Example

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Bridge Design Aspects
• No modification to content or format of frame
• No additional header
• Exact bitwise copy of frame from one LAN to another
— that is why two LANs must be identical
• Enough buffering to meet peak demand
• May connect more than two LANs
• Routing and addressing intelligence
— Must know the addresses on each LAN to be able to tell which
frames to pass
— May be more than one bridge to reach the destination
• Bridging is transparent to stations
— All stations on multiple LANs think that they are on one single
LAN

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Bridge Protocol Architecture
• IEEE 802.1D
• operates at MAC level
—Station address is at this level
—Bridge does not need LLC layer

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Switches
• Faster than bridges
• OSI layer 2
• No routing function
• Types
—Cut-through switch (fast with collision and error)
—Store-and-forward switch (slow, more expensive,
fewer errors)

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Routers
• Passing and translating destination address
• OSI layer 3
• Inter network address, routing table & routing
algorithm ( cost, number of links, bandwidth,
delay, & traffic load)

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Brouters
• Combination of a bridge and router

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Gateways
• Connects networks with different protocols
• OSI layer 4 and up
• Translate different data codes
• Combination of hardware and software

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LAN Software
• workstation
—IBM NetBIOS (Network Basic Input Output System)
—Window 98, 2000, & XP
—TCP/IP
• Server
—Microsoft Window NT Server (NTS)
—Novell Netware
—Banyan VINES (Virtual Integrated Network Services)

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Costs
• Workstations
• Servers
• Printers
• Cabling
• Bridges, routers, brouters, gateways,
switches
• Training
• People (consultant, administrator etc.)
• Maintenance
• Space & Environment
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE, BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY
Installation

• Choices
—Suppliers or dealers
—In house
• Tasks (project management)
—Install hardware and software
—Test access and capability
—Trouble shoot
—Document
—Train user
—Help center
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Management & Maintenance
• Organization: LAN administrator
• Management: policies and procedures
• Documentation
• Hardware and software control
• Change control
• Back up (hardware and software)
• Security (logical and physical)
• Application (compatibility, integrity, & efficiency)
• Performance monitoring

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Security
• Password
• Sign off
• Encryption
• Backup
• Downloading
• Viruses protection
• Dial-up access
• Legal software
• Internal and external auditing
• Written policy and procedure
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 THANKS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC SCIENCE, BERHAMPUR UNIVERSITY