The Scientific Method

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Develop the problem Develop a theoretical solution to the problem Formulate the hypothesis or question Formulate the research plan (methods) Collect and analyze the data Interpret the results and form conclusions Refine the theory

Identification of the Research Problem

Steps to be Taken
1. Identify a general problem area 2. Revise & narrow the problem statement

1. Identify a general problem area

Criteria to use:
    

Interest Theoretical value Practical value Workability Critical mass

Worthwhile?

1. Identify a general problem area



Why do people drop out of recreation programs? How do you make this applied research vs. basic research vs. action research?

1. Identify a general problem area




Review the literature

Get broad overview using secondary sources

Write a general problem statement

Outline of the Problem

I. Topic: Attrition in Recreation Programs II. Statement of the Problem: The problem was to determine why participants in recreation programs drop out.

Writing Problem Statements

 

Tells what will be (or was) done Identifies variables & relationships to be studied

2. Revise & narrow the problem statement



Review primary sources in the literature

  

Identify primary sources Read & record the literature Focus should be on identifying questions that need to be answered (theoretically & practically)

2. Revise & narrow the problem statement



   

Review primary sources in the literature Make a list of research questions Provide a rationale for the problem Identify variables to be studied Rewrite the problem statement

Outline of the Problem

III. Results of Previous Studies IV. Questions to be Answered:
A. B. C. D. What is the extent of the attrition? What is the nature of the attrition? What are the causes of the attrition? What is the relationship of the cause of attrition to each type of attrition? E. Are there any factors that explain the causes of attrition?

Statement of the Problem



The problem was to determine the extent to which participants in recreation programs drop out, the reasons for their dropping out, and the relationship of various facts to loss of enrollment.

The Scientific Method

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Develop the problem Develop a theoretical solution to the problem Formulate the hypothesis or question Formulate the research plan (methods) Collect and analyze the data Interpret the results and form conclusions Refine the theory

Development of the Research Question or Hypothesis

Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions

Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions

Identify independent (cause, what is manipulated) and dependent (effect, what is measured) variables to be measured

Outline of the Problem



What is the extent of the attrition?

 

In each season? In different programs?

Outline of the Problem



What is the nature of the attrition?

   

Males and females? People of different ages? People of different geographic regions? People with different backgrounds in recreation? Combinations of the above?

Outline of the Problem



What are the causes of attrition?

   

Economic reasons? Personality differences? Personal (other than economic) reasons? Other?

Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions

Variables


Any characteristic or phenomenon that can vary (or change) across organisms, situations, or environments

Types of Variables
Variable Independent (Situational) Dependent (Response) Attribute (Subject) Extraneous (Mediating) Key Characteristic Example Eating apples (none Presumed cause or one per day) Measured Number of doctor outcome (effect) visits for colds or flu Subject characteristic Controlled influence Male vs. female Prior health, other foods

Statement of the Problem



The problem was to determine the extent to which participants in outdoor recreation programs in college drop out and the reasons for their dropping out.

Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions

Which should it be?

Hypotheses
  

Research hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Null hypothesis

Examples of Research Hypotheses



If children are taught to read via whole language, then their reading comprehension will be higher. If children watch 3 or more hours of TV per day, then their behavior on the playground will become more aggressive. If children learn in small cooperative groups, then their social interactions will be more positive.

Form of Research Hypotheses



IF, THEN: If young children take piano lessons, then they will have higher math aptitude 10 years later. STATEMENT: Young children who take piano lessons will have higher math aptitude 10 years later. QUESTION: Will young children who take piano lessons have higher math aptitude 10 years later?

Null Hypothesis & Statistics



STATISTICAL QUESTION: How likely is it (what is the probability) that the actual findings in the sample would be obtained if the null hypothesis was true? STATISTICAL ANSWER: p value (probability value p p =.05) There is a 5% (5 in 100) chance that the actual findings in the sample would be obtained if the null hypothesis is true.

Examples


RESEARCH: If children watch violent TV, then they will act more aggressively at recess. ALTERNATIVE: Children prone to aggression simply watch more violent TV. NULL: In a population of school-age children there is no relationship between TV violence and aggressive behavior.

Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions

Limitations - Example


This sample represented college students in the Northwest United States. Caution should be taken in extrapolating these results to people of other age groups in other geographic locations.

Assumptions - Examples


All participants who sign up for recreation programs do so voluntarily. All outdoor recreation programs are taught by qualified personnel.

Assumptions - Examples


All subjects completed the questionnaire honestly and correctly. The subjects understood the directions as they were intended. The subjects were a representative sample of college students in the Northwest.

Steps to be Taken
1. Delimit the problem 2. Rewrite the problem statement 3. Write the hypotheses/research questions 4. Identify assumptions & limitations 5. Develop operational definitions

Operational Definition
 

Presumed indicator of a construct Makes construct observable (empirical) & quantifiable Caution: loss of meaning

Creativity: Operational Definition

  

Teacher s ratings on a scale of 1-10 Number of recognized science projects Number of unusual uses for a briick named within one minute Ratings of a short story written by students as judged by a creativity expert Score on a researcher-developed test of creativity

Intelligence: Operational Definition

 

Correctly solving logic problem Answering questions about word meanings Repeating backward strings of 8 numbers Solving a math problem

 

 

Using street smarts to achieve a goal Starting a new business Paraphrasing the theme of a written paragraph Solving an equation Executing a triple lutz

Construct Intelligence Anxiety Motivation

Operational definition Score on GRE; score on StanfordBinet scale HR; BP; self-report rating GPA

Hyperactivity Number of fidgets in 15 minutes Self-esteem Creativity Score on Coopersmith test Number of novel uses for paper clips described in 3 minutes

The Scientific Method

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Develop the problem Develop a theoretical solution to the problem Formulate the hypothesis or question Formulate the research plan (methods) Collect and analyze the data Interpret the results and form conclusions Refine the theory