THE FORMATION OF

ELEMENTS DURING THE BIG

BANG AND STELLAR
EVOLUTION

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 THE BIG BANG MODEL

According to the big-bang model, the universe expanded

rapidly from a highly compressed primordial state, which
resulted in a significant decrease in density and temperature.
Its essential feature is the emergence of the universe from a state
of extremely high temperature and density —the so-called big bang
that occurred 13.8 billion years ago. Although this type of universe
was proposed by Russian mathematician Aleksandr Friedmann and
Belgian astronomer Georges Lemaître in the 1920s, the modern
version was developed by Russian-born American physicist 
George Gamow and colleagues in the 1940s.
The theory predicts that definite amounts of hydrogen,
helium, and lithium were produced.

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 The Big Bang Model is based on 2
assumptions

The first is that Albert Einstein’s 

general theory of relativity correctly
describes the gravitational interaction of all 
matter. The second assumption, called the 
cosmological principle, states that an
observer’s view of the universe depends
neither on the direction in which he looks
nor on his location.
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 The Big Bang Model is based on 2
assumptions

The first is that Albert Einstein’s 

general theory of relativity correctly
describes the gravitational interaction of all 
matter. The second assumption, called the 
cosmological principle, states that an
observer’s view of the universe depends
neither on the direction in which he looks
nor on his location.
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 Primordial
Nucleosynthesis

Hydrogen and helium were created during the Big

Bang while the Universe was cooling from its initial
hot, dense state.

About 10% of the lithium in the Universe today was

also created in the Big Bang.

The first stars formed from this material.

• Hydrogen – from big
bang nucleosynthesis Making
• Helium – from big bang
and from hydrogen Elements Up to
burning via the p-p Iron
chain and CNO cycle
• Nitrogen – from CNO
cycle
• Carbon, Oxygen – from
helium burning
• Light elements (Neon,
Magnesium, Calcium –
from carbon and
oxygen burning
• Iron metals – from the
final burning
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS (BBN)
• Refers to the production of nuclei
other than those of the lightest
isotope of hydrogen during the
early phases of the Universe.
• It is believed by most cosmologists
to have taken place in the interval
from roughly 10 seconds to 20
minutes after Big Bang.
 NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS
• Combine light nuclei
to form heavier • EXOTHERMIC
nuclei REACTIONS
• Nuclear fusion inside the stars
reactions in stars convert
have been proposed hydrogen to
to account for the helium
abundances of
elements
PROTON-PROTON CHAIN (p-p chain)
• It is a known set of nuclear fusion
reactions by which stars convert
hydrogen to helium.
• It dominates in stars with masses less
than or equal to that of the Sun.
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO Cycle)
• It is a known set of nuclear fusion reactions by
which stars convert hydrogen to helium.
• Suggested by theoretical models to dominate in
stars with masses greater than about 1.3
times than that of the Sun.
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO Cycle)
• A process of stellar nucleosynthesis in which stars on
the main sequence fuse hydrogen into helium via six-
stage sequence of reactions. This sequence proceeds as
follows:
• 1. A carbon-12 captures a proton and emits a gamma
ray, producing nitrogen-13.
• 2. Nitrogen-13 is unstable and emits a beta particle,
decaying to carbon-13.
• 3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and becomes nitrogen-
14 via emission of a gamma ray.
• 4. Nitrogen-14 captures another proton and becomes
oxygen-15 by emitting a gamma ray.
• 5. Oxygen-15 becomes nitrogen-15 via beta decay
• 6. Nitrogen-15 captues a proton and produces a helium
cucleus and carbon-12.
 HELIUM BURNING
• When the temperature in the core
of a star reaches about 100 million
degrees, three colliding helium
nuclei can fuse to from a carbon
nucleus. This set of reactions is
also called the triple alpha process.
Helium burning occurs after the
star has evolved off the main
sequence, when it is a red giant.
 HELIUM BURNING
• Example of element making
(nucleogenesis) in helium burning
reactions:
1. 3 helium atoms fusing to give a carbon
atom
2. Carbon atom + helium atom fusing to
five an oxygen atom
3. Oxygen atom + helium atom fusing to
give a neon atom
4. Neon atom + helium atom fusing to give
a magnesium atom
 Elements Heavier than Iron …
• Once iron is formed, it is no longer possible to
create energy via fusion.

Þ Elements heavier than iron require a different

process (Iron has an atomic number 26.)

• The heaviest naturally occurring nucleus is uranium

(atomic number 92). How do we get to uranium
then?
•Elements heavier than iron are created by
neutron capture
•The neutron is converted into a proton and added to
the nucleus, increasing the atomic number to make the
next element in the periodic table.
 2 types of neutron capture

1. s-process – refers to the slow

addition of neutrons in which
hundreds or thousands of years
might pass between neutron
additions.
2. r-process – refers to the rapid
addition of neutrons, too fast such
that many neutrons are added before
beta decay occurs.
 Quick quiz
• Arrange the following events, reactions or evidence I
chronological order to trace the formation of light and heavy
elements in the Big Bang, nuclear fusion, and neutron capture.

1. Carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen were

used as catalysts to transform protons
into helium.
2. 56Fe 57
Co + ß
3. Rapid addition of neutrons before beta
decay occurs
4. 44Ti + 4He 48
Cr + energy
5. At about 108 K, helium burning occurs