PHRASEOLOGY: WORD-GROUPS WITH

TRANSFERRED
MEANING
1.Basic features of word-groups.
The largest two-facet lexical unit consisting
of more than one word is the word- group
observed on the syntagmatic level. The
degree of structural and semantic cohesion
of word-groups may be different. There
exist free and non-free word-groups.
2.Lexical and grammatical valency.
 Words are used in certain lexical context, i.e. in
combination with other words. The aptness of a
word to appear in various combinations is called
lexical valency or collocability. The range of the
lexical valency is linguistically restricted by the
inner structure of the English word-stock. If words
are habitually collocated they tend to constitute a
cliche. Words are used in grammatical structures,
that is in grammatical context. The aptness of the
word to appear in specific grammatical/syntactic
structures is called grammatical valency.
3.Classification of word groups.
Bloomfield’s classification is made by
means of criteria of distribution, i.e.
syntactic use. According to it there are
endocentric constructions (or word-
groups) and exocentric constructions (or
word-groups).
According to their syntactic pattern word-
groups may be classified into predicative
and non-predicative.
Semantically all word-groups may be
classified into
Motivated - the combined lexical
meaning of the word-group is deducible
from the meaning of its components
Non - motivated
the constituents of such word-groups do
not possess any individual meaning of
their own and are described as
phraseological units
The term phraseology as a
science was born in Soviet
linguistics. There are two main
schools treating the problem
of English phraseology, that of
N.N. Amosova and that of
A.V.Kunin.
Kunin’s theory is based on the
concept of specific stability at the
phraseological level. A.I.Smirnitsky
takes as his guiding principle the
equivalence of a phraseological
unit (PU) to a word. Whatever the
theory the term phraseology is
applied to stable combinations of
words characterized by the
integrity of meaning.
According to N.N Amosova a
phraseological unit is

a unit of constant context;

 a stable combination of words in
which either one of the components
has a phraseological bound meaning
 (e.g. white lie, husband’s tea –
жидкий чай) or the meaning of
each component is weakened, or
entirely lost (“red tape”, mare’s
nest)
A.V Kunin’s theory is based on
The concept of specific
ability at phraseological level;
Phraseological units are
characterized by certain
minimum of phraseological
stability (the degree of
stability may vary so that
there are several “limits ” of
stability)
A.I. Smirnitsky
 Takes as his guiding principle the
equivalence of phraseological unit
to a word. There are two
chracteristic features that make
phraseological unit equivalent to a
word, namely the integrity of
meaning and the fact that both the
word and the phraseological unit
are ready- made units which are
reproduced in speech and are not
recognized at the speaker’s will
The term phraseology
Is applied to stable
combinations of words
characterized by the integrity of
meaning, represent what can
probably be described as the
most picturesque, colorful and
expressive part of the
vocabulary
E.g. to lead the dance, to take
the cake
V.V.Vinogradov’s classification based on
motivation
Phraseological Fusions
Represent the highest stage of
blending together, they are
completely non- motivated, the
meaning of the components has no
connection, at least synchronically,
with the meaning of the whole
group. Idiomaticity is, as a rule,
combined with complete stability of
lexical components and
grammatical structure of the fusion
Phraseological unities
Partiallynon- motivated as their meaning
can usually be understood through the
metaphoric meaning of the whole
phraseological unit (e.g. to show one’s
teeth, to know the way the wind is
blowing)
Phraseological connotations
Motivated but they consist of words
possessing specific lexical valency. One
component is used in its direct meaning
while the other is used
figuratively(metaphorically): meet the
demand, meet the necessity, meet the
requirements; bear a grudge (but not meet
the help), pay attention
 Amosova’s approach to classification of PhU is
contextological; it is based on the principle of fixed context.
Phrasemes
As a rule are two-member word-groups in
which one of the members has specialized
meaning dependent on the second
component
E.g white lie, old boat
Idioms
The new meaning is created by the whole,
though every element may have its
original meaning weakened or even
completely lost: “red tape – bureaucratic
methods”
Semantically and grammatically
inseparable units
Idioms
motivated
• Each component is dependent upon
transferred meaning of the whole idiom (to
take the bull by the horns (homonymous to
the whole phrase))
demotivated
• Integrity of meanings: a whole with the
meaning of each of the component entirely
lost (a mare’s nest (иллюзия, заблуждение))
Smirnitsky’s classification is based on a functional approach, as well
as Kunin’s.

Nominal phrases: the root of the trouble

Verbal phrases: to put one’s best foot forward
Adjectival phrases: as good as gold
Adverbial phrases: from head to foot
Prepositional phrases: on the ground of
Conjunctional phrases: as long as
Interjectional phrases: Well, I never! Take it easy

 Within each of these classes a further subdivision

is possible.
Distinguishing PhUs from Free Word-
Groups
 the most discussed –and the most
controversial problem in the field of
phraseology;
it is complicated by the existence of great
number of marginal cases, the so called semi-
fixed or semi-free word-groups which share
with phraseological units their structural
stability but lack their semantic unity and
figurativeness (e.g.to go to school, to go by
bus, to commit suicide)
Two major criteria for distinguishing
PhUs and Free Word-groups
1. semantic;
2. structural
Semantic criterion
A phraseological unit is a
stable word-group
characterized by a completely
or partially transferred
meaning
The structural criterion
 Recognizes structural invariability as an
essential feature of phraseological
units, which finds expression in a
number of restriction:
 1 type of restriction: in substitution: no
word can be substituted for any
meaningful component of a
phraselogical unit without destroying its
sense;
2 type: is the restriction in introducing
any additional components into the
structure of phraseological unit.
In free word-groups such changes
can be made without affecting the
general meaning of the utterance:
E.g. The big ship is carrying a
large cargo of coal to the port of
Liverpool.
In PhU: to carry a coal to
Newcastle
no additional component can be
introduced
Idiom two central features identify
The meaning of the idiomatic expression
cannot be seduced by examining the
meanings of the constituent lexemes. The
expression is fixed, both grammatically and
both lexically. Thus, put a sock in it! means
'stop talking', and it is not possible to
replace any of the lexemes and retain the
idiomatic meaning. Put a stocking in it or
put a sock on it must be nterpreted literally
or not at all.
The following list of idiomatic uses of hand, adapted from
the Longman Dictionary of English Idioms ', 1979), makes
no claim to completeness.
at first hand
second hand
a bird in the hand...
bite the hand that feeds him
bound/tied hand and foot
cap in hand
close at hand
come the heavy hand
cross my hand with silver
a dab hand
fight hand to hand
force my hand
a free hand
to get/keep my hand in
give/lend me a hand
give her the glad hand
go/be hand in hand
hand in glove
hand it to me on a plate
hand over fist
have/take a hand in it
have me eating out of her
hand have him in the palm of my
hand
have to hand it to her hold your hand ('support') in hand an iron hand in a
velvet
glove know it like the back of my
hand
lift a hand/finger live from hand to mouth offhand an old hand on every hand
on hand
on the one hand...
out of hand
put/dip his hand into his
pocket
put/lay my hands on it his left hand doesn't know
what his right hand's
doing
put my hand to the plough raise/lift my hand against us his right
hand (man) rule them with an iron hand seethe hand/finger of God
in...
show/reveal your hand stay your hand strengthen your hand take it
in hand throw his hand in to hand ('within reach') try your hand
turn/set/put your hand to the upper/whip hand wait on me hand
and foot with a heavy hand with a high hand with an open hand
with one hand tied behind
my back catch red-handed.
Collocations

Traffi
c
 accident

lights
Traffi jams

c
fumes
crime
 prevention

to turn
crime rate

wave
References
1.И.В.Зыкова Практический
курс английской
лексикологии.- М.:
«Академия, 2007»с.128-144
2. Г.Б. Антрушина,
О.В.Афанасьева, н.Н.
Морозова.- М.: «Дрофа»
Лексикология английского
языка, с.225-242