ROCK BREAKING

FRAGMENTATION
MINING II (MIN21-1)

Copyright © 2014 - University of Johannesburg

 ROCK BREAKING

FRAGMENTATION

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 2

CONTENTS
1. Explosive Science
2. Rock Fragmentation
3. Explosives and Initiation Systems
4. Explosives’ Properties

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 3

 ROCK BREAKING: BLASTING

EXPLOSIVE SCIENCE

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 4

 EXPLOSIVE INGREDIENTS
What is an explosive made of?
TNT GAS BUBBLES
PLASTIC EMULSION
PAPER AN GMB’S
WAX (GLASS MICROBALLOONS)

SAWDUST
BLACK POWDER
NITROGLYCERIN

HMX
POLYSTYRENE
MAN
PETN
OIL
DIESEL
RDX
2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) ALUMINIUM 5
LEAD AZIDE
 EXPLOSIVE REACTION
How does an explosive work?
An explosive works like a fast fire!
Oxygen keeps the fuel burning

Energy(shock,heat) Heat Source

from burning provides the ignites the fuel
heat source to ignite next
portion of fuel
Heat Source
2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 6
 EXPLOSIVE REACTION
How do chemicals and air provide an ignition source?
Ignition Source

Chemical Sensitisers Mechanical Sensitisers

(Very sensitive to heat, (Compressing air
impact, friction) gives off heat (hotspots))
TNT
BLACK POWDER Glass Microballoons

NITROGLYCERIN GAS BUBBLES

PETN AIR GAPS
HMX

RDX

LEAD AZIDE
2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 7
 IGNITION POINTS OR
“HOTSPOTS”

Initiation point

Shock Waves

(Gas bubbles, Glass MicroBalloons, air gaps)

High intensity, high velocity shock waves move from the initiation point through the
explosives

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 8

 IGNITION POINTS OR
“HOTSPOTS”

Initiation point

Shock Waves

(Gas bubbles, Glass MicroBalloons, air gaps)

High intensity, high velocity shock waves move from the initiation point through the
explosives compressing the gas/air bubbles and forming ignition points or “hot spots”
which in turn ignite the fuel/oxygen mix to create more energy and shockwaves.
2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 9
FUMES
What does “oxygen balance” mean?

N2 H2 O
CO2 (Nitrogen) (Water)
(Carbon Dioxide)

Oxidiser Fuel

E x p l o s i v e s

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 10

Oxygen Balanced or “ Neutral”
FUMES
What does “oxygen balance” mean?

CO N2
H2 O
(Carbon Monoxide)

Oxidiser

Fuel
E x
p l
o s
I v
e s

2015/03/26 Oxygen “Negative”

MINING II(not enough Oxygen)
(MIN21-1) 11
FUMES
What does “oxygen balance” mean?

NO, NO2 H2 O
CO2
(Nitrous Oxides)

Fuel

Oxidiser

s
I v e
s
p l o
E x

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 12

Oxygen “Positive” (too much oxygen)
 ROCK BREAKING: BLASTING

ROCK FRAGMENTATION

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 13

ROCK FRAGMENTATION
How do explosives break rock?
• Chemical reaction that releases shock energy
and gas (heave) energy

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 14

ROCK FRAGMENTATION
Rock is affected by a detonation in three principal stages.
1. First, a shock wave released by the detonation passes through the rock mass at a
high velocity. The rock is stressed by compression. The shock wave does not
break the rock, but crushes the blasthole walls and produces microscopic joints,
which help to break and cut the rock in the second stage.
2. After reflecting from free faces, the shock waves expose the rock to tensile
forces. Shock waves are reflected from bench faces or joints in the rock. Tensile
forces cause small primary, often radial, cracks that extend from the centre of
the hole
3. Upon detonation, large quantities of high-pressure gases are formed. Through
rapid heat release, the expanding gases spread into the primary cracks. The
cracks expand, the rock’s free surface moves forward, pressure is unloaded and
tension increases in the primary cracks. The primary cracks then expand to the
surface which promotes the complete loosening of the rock. The burden is
consequently torn off.

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 15

SHOCK ENERGY
• Initial energy released is shock energy
• Propagation of shock waves which results in:
1. Crushing of immediate surface area of blast hole
• Biggest source of dust
2. Development of micro cracks
3. Extension of micro cracks from wave reflecting
from free face

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 16

 SHOCK ENERGY
Compressive shockwaves Reflected tensile
shock waves

Structure/Free Face

Tensile Cracks

Crushing

Micro cracks

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 17

HEAVE ENERGY
Gas (heave) energy seperates the rock fragments and
displaces (throws) rock from in-situ position
Shock waves

Gas Expansion

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 18

GAS ENERGY
How much gas is produced?
One kg of explosive
turns into about 800 litres of gas when initiated

1 kg

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 19

BLAST HOLE INTERACTION

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 20

 ROCK BREAKING: BLASTING

EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 21

EXPLOSIVES SELECTION
• When selecting explosives consider:
– Velocity of detonation (VOD)
– Density
– Water Resistance
– Sensitivity

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 22

EXPLOSIVES SELECTION
• There are many reasons for choosing an explosive. These reasons range from the specifications of
the product, the price, availability, and reliability. Whatever the reason for selection, the blaster
should consider the following properties:
– Velocity - If fragmentation is desired, the best results are obtained when the detonation velocity is at or near
the sonic velocity of the rock. If mass movement is more important (as in blast casting) or very large fragments
are desired (as in riprap production or slabbing), detonation velocity should be notably below the rock's sonic
velocity.
– Sensitivity - When using charges in small diameter boreholes, the blaster needs sensitive products such as cap
sensitive emulsions or water gels. The smaller the hole, the more sensitive the product needs to be. ANFO
functions well in large diameter holes (four inches and above), but has trouble sustaining detonation in small
holes.
– Gas or Pressure Release - This is the amount of gas and pressure released when the explosive or blasting agent
detonates. Generally, the more gas release, the more heave or displacement that is possible.
– Water Resistance - In conditions where the holes are producing water or ground water is a problem, packaged
ANFO, water gels or emulsions function best. There are also plastic borehole liners that can be used for bulk
loading operations.
– Fume Quality - When working in a poorly ventilated operation such as in a tunnel, mine, or deep trench, select
a product with a good (Class I) fume rating. Even when working in the open, allow all evidence of smoke and
dust to clear before re-entering the blast area, and remember that the toxic gases produced are colourless,
odourless, and potentially lethal.

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 23

 VOD Velocity of Detonation
(VOD)
“The speed at which the explosive propagates”

What effect does VOD have on blasting result?

Low VOD High VOD

( less than 5000 m/s) (5000+m/s)

Shock waves Shock waves

Blasthole Blasthole

Anfo, NG Explosives Emulsions, cast boosters

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 24
VOD Velocity of Detonation
(VOD)

What effect does VOD have on blasting result?

Low VOD High VOD

( less than 5000 m/s) (5000+m/s)

Anfo, NG Explosives Emulsions, cast boosters

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 25
DENSITY
• The density of an explosive may be expressed in terms of specific gravity. Specific
gravity is the ratio ofthe density of the explosive to the density of water under
standard conditions. The specific gravity of commercial explosives ranges from 0.6
to 1.7 g/cc.
• With few exceptions, denser explosives give higher detonation velocities and
pressures.
• Density is an important consideration when choosing an explosive. For difficult
blasting conditions or where fine fragmentation is required, a dense explosive is
usually necessary.
• In easily fragmented rock or where fine fragmentation is not needed, a low-density
explosive will often suffice.
• Low-density explosives are particularly useful in the production of riprap or other
coarse products.
• The density of an explosive is also important when working under wet conditions.
An explosive with a specific gravity of less than 1.0 will not sink in water

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 26

DENSITY

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 27

WATER RESISTANCE
• An explosive's water resistance is a measure of its ability to withstand
exposure to water without deteriorating or losing sensitivity.
• In dry work, water resistance is of no consequence. If water is standing
in the borehole, and the time between loading and firing is fairly short,
an explosive with a water-resistance rating of “good” is sufficient.
• If the exposure is prolonged, or if the water is percolating through the
borehole, “very good” to excellent” water resistance is required.
• In general, gelatins and emulsions offer the best water resistance.
• Higher-density explosives have fair to excellent water resistance,
whereas low-density explosives and blasting agents have little or none.
• Brown nitrogen oxide fumes from a blast often mean the explosive has
deteriorated from exposure to water.

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 28

WATER RESISTANCE

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 29

SENSITIVITY
• Sensitivity is the ease with which an explosive
detonates
• An explosive may be sensitive to heat, impact
and/or friction

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 30

 SENSITIVITY
More Plain Detonators
What is the risk of
risk
premature detonation Detonating Cord
from impact, friction Electric Detonators
or heat?
Non-electric Detonator

Electronic Detonators
Cast Boosters
Packaged Emulsions

Anfo
Less
2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1)
risk Bulk Explosives 31
SENSITIVITY
• Can an explosive lose it’s sensitivity?.....YES!
– Too old

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 32

SENSITIVITY: STORAGE LIFE
Explosives

How long can you store an explosive

in a magazine?

Product Recommended Storage Life

Anfo 3-4 months

Packaged Emulsions 12 months

Non-electric Detonators 12 months*

Detonating Cord 5 years

Cast Boosters 5 years

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 33
SENSITIVITY
• Can an explosive lose it’s sensitivity?.....YES!
– Too old
– Shock crystallization

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 34

SENSITIVITY: SHOCK CRYSTALLIZATION

Tamping packaged explosives into blastholes

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 35
SENSITIVITY: SHOCK CRYSTALLIZATION

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 36

SENSITIVITY: SHOCK CRYSTALLIZATION

Tamping too hard

Shock crystallisation
Feels hard, lumpy, like grains of sand

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 37

SENSITIVITY: SHOCK CRYSTALLIZATION

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 38

SENSITIVITY: SHOCK CRYSTALLIZATION

Misfire!

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 39

SENSITIVITY
• Can an explosive lose it’s sensitivity?.....YES!
– Too old
– Shock crystallization
– Desensitization

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 40

TEMPERATURE
What is the maximum temperature for explosives?

Product Recommended Maximum

Temperature

Anfo 100º C

Packaged Emulsions 100º C

Non-electric Detonators 80º C

Detonating Cord 80º C

Cast Boosters 75º C

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 41

 CLARITY SEEKING

QUESTIONS?

2015/03/26 MINING II (MIN21-1) 42