Forces of attraction

OBJECTIVES

1. State the various forces of attraction between particles

2. State the relationship between forces of attraction and states of matter
3. Relate physical properties of matter to differences in strength of forces
of attraction
4. Explain the following: ionic, covalent and metallic bonds
5. Describe co-ordinate (dative) bonding
6. Describe the origin of intermolecular forces
Forces of Attraction

These are forces that exist WITHIN and BETWEEN molecules.

Forces of attraction are broken down into two types:
1. Intermolecular forces - weak forces that exist between
molecules/compounds
2. Intramolecular forces - strong forces that exist within
molecules /compounds
Intra vs Inter-molecular forces
Forces of Attraction vs Physical State of Compounds

The physical state of matter depends on the strength of the

forces of attraction in and between particles.
Solids have strong forces of attraction, while liquids have
moderate forces of attraction while liquids have weak forces of
attraction.
Force of Attraction State of Matter
Ionic Solids at room temp & pressure
Covalent Mostly liquids & gases at room
temp & pressure. Few are solids

Metallic Solids at room temp & pressure

Van der waals forces Usually a liquid or gas at room
temp & pressure, or a low melting
point solid
Hydrogen bonds Liquid at room temp & pressure
Forces of Attraction vs Physical Properties

Physical properties such as boiling point, melting point and

solubility depends on the type of forces of attraction present in
compounds.
The stronger the force of attraction, the higher the melting point.
For eg. in group VII, the force of attraction (Van der Waals)
increases from fluorine to iodine and the melting points increase
as well.
IONIC BONDING
IONIC BONDING

This involves the transfer of electrons from a metal atom to a

non-metal atom until the outer shells of the resulting ions are
similar to those of a noble gas.
The metals lose electrons to form cations, while the non-metals
accept the electrons lost from the metals and form anions.
The oppositely charged cations and anions are attracted to each
other by what is called the electrostatic force of attraction which
is a strong force that holds the ionic compound together.
IONIC BONDING

Ionic bonds are typically formed between metals with one, two
or three valence electrons and non-metals with five, six or seven
electrons in their valence shell
IONIC BONDING
IONIC BONDING
Properties of Ionic Compounds

● They are usually crystalline solids

● They have high melting points and boiling points. A large
amount of energy is required to break the solid structure
because it is held together by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction.
● They are hard and brittle. When a force is applied, the like
charges repel each other which results in the crystals being
shattered.
Properties of Ionic Compounds

● They conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water.

The ions are free to move, therefore mobile charge carriers
are present to conduct electricity. They do not conduct
electricity in the solid state. Why??
● They are usually soluble in water. They have charges and will
have solute-solvent interactions with polar water molecules.
COVALENT BONDING

Covalent bond is formed when atoms share one or more pairs of

electrons to gain a full outer shell. Each shared pair is considered
a covalent bond. Each of the combining atoms contribute one
electron to the bond.
atoms combine by overlapping their orbital and thus forming a
lower energy state where their valence electrons with opposite spin,
pair up to form covalent bonds.

The attraction between the shared electrons and the nuclei of

the combining atoms hold the atoms together.
Molecular Orbitals

In covalent bonding, the atomic orbital of one atom overlaps and

combines with the atomic orbital of another atom to form a
bond.

When atomic orbitals overlap and combine, molecular orbitals

are formed.

Molecular orbitals may be:

● Sigma molecular orbital - produces sigma bonds
● Pi molecular orbital - produces pi bonds
Sigma Bonds

Compounds with sigma bonds are usually stable

There are three possible ways for a sigma molecular orbital to

form:
PI BONDS

A pi molecular orbital is formed by sideways overlap of two parallel p

orbitals.

The electron density of the pi bond is distributed above and below the
plane of the sigma bond.

(electron density- a measure of the probability of an electron being

present)

The electron density is zero along the axis of the nuclei . A pi bond is
weaker than a sigma bond and hence it is more reactive.
NB either the
LATERAL overall
of

p + p or p +
x x y

p or
y

p +p gives a
z z
pi bond
Sigma Bond Pi Bond

Head on overlapping of atomic orbitals Parallel sideways overlapping of atomic

orbitals

Always a single bond Can be double or single bond

Overlapping to a large extent so bond Overlapping takes place to lesser extent

formed is very strong so bond formed is relatively weak
Eg; hydrocarbons such as Alkanes Eg; hydrocarbons such as alkenes
Bond Strength

The strength of a covalent bond depends on the effectiveness of

the overlap between the atomic orbitals.
If the overlap is large, the bond is very strong, whereas a small
overlap implies that the bond is very weak. Why??
This is why sigma bonds are stronger than pi bonds.
Bond Length

The bond length is the distance between the the nuclei of two
atoms that are bonded to each other.
Generally shorter bond lengths give rise to stronger bonds.
If the bond length is short, then the nuclei will hold on to the
electrons in the covalent bond very strongly.
This implies that there is very effective overlap between atomic
orbitals.
Electron-deficient Molecule

Some molecules are unable to complete the octet of electrons

when they form covalent bonds. These molecules are said to be
electron deficient.
Examples are Boron trichloride and beryllium dichloride
MOlecule with Expanded Octet

Some molecules can increase the number of electrons in their

outer shell to more than 8. These molecules are said to have an
expanded octet of electrons.
This can occur in elements such as Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulfur
and Chlorine. These atoms are able to expand their valence shell.
NB. This can only occur when the valence shell has enough
orbitals to accommodate the extra electrons.
Molecules with Expanded Octet

For example, in phosphorus, the valence shell has a principal

quantum number n=3 An octet would be 3s2 3p6. However, the
3d subshell is also available, and some of the 3d orbitals may be
involved in bonding. This permis the extra pair of electrons to
occupy the valence (n=3) shell of phosphorus in PF5 (phosphorus
pentafluoride).
Example 1: Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
Phosphorus pentafluorde (PF5)
Co-ordinate Bonding

A co-ordinate bond (dative covalent bond) is formed when one

atom provides both the electrons for the covalent bond. For co-
ordinate bonding to occur we need:
1. One atom with a lone pair of electrons
2. A second atom with an unfilled orbital
Co-ordinate Bonding

The atom with the unfilled orbital (an electron deficient atom)
accepts the lone pair of electrons to complete the outer shell of
both atoms.
Metallic Bonding

Most metals exist in a lattice surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalised

electrons. These electrons are free to move between the metal
ions.
Metallic Bonding

The number of delocalised electrons depend on the number of

electrons lost by each metal atom
The positive charges are held together by their strong
electrostatic attraction to the delocalised electrons
Metallic Bonding

The strength of metallic bonding increases with:

● Increasing positive charges on the ions
● Decreasing size of the metal atoms
● Increasing number of delocalised electrons
Properties of Metals

● Melting and boiling points are high due to the strong forces of
attraction present
● Conduct electricity when solid or molten: the delocalised
electrons are free to move when a voltage is applied
● They are malleable (can be beaten into shapes) and ductile (can
be drawn into wires); when a force is applied, the layers of the
metal ions can slide over each other . The attractive force
between the metal ions and electrons can act in all directions.
So when the layers slide, new bonds can easily form. This
leaves the metal in a different shape but still strong.
Electronegativity

The ability of a particular atom in a covalent bond to attract the

bonding pair of electrons to itself.
● Electronegativity increases from Group I to Group VII
● Electronegativity decreases down any group
Polarity in Molecules

If the electronegativity values of the two atoms in a covalent

bond are the same, we say that the bond is non-polar
If the electronegativity values of the two atoms are different, we
say that the bond is polar