Geotech 2 Foundation Engineering

BS CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECH 2
Foundation Engineering
L.M. FABILLAR
WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Course Outcomes:
Course : After completing this course, the students will be able to:
FOUNDATION 1. Plan a subsurface exploration, and select
ENGINEERING appropriate drilling, sampling and field property
measurement tools for different soil profiles.
2. Create an idealized soil profile for analysis and
design from collected soil properties.
3. Evaluate laboratory and field data to select
appropriate parameters to use in foundation
analysis.
4. Determine the lateral loads from soils.
5. Design earth retaining structures.
6. Apply shallow and deep bearing capacity and
settlement equations for design with applicable
correction factors with a consideration of water
effects and layering.
Course Outline:
1.Fundamental concepts – index and classification properties, water flow,
effective stress concept, consolidation behavior, shear strength of soils –
undrained and drained conditions.
2.Subsurface exploration – sampling/characterization methods and reporting,
variability.
3.Lateral loads (at-rest, active and passive pressures).
4.Earth retaining structures and excavations – walls (gravity/cantilever,
mechanically-stabilized, sheet-piled, anchored) braced cuts,
drainage/dewatering.
5.Performance requirements, applied loads based on codes, and selection of
foundations.
6.Shallow foundation design – types (spread, strip, and mat/raft), bearing
capacity and settlements (elastic/initial, consolidation, allowable/tolerable),
testing and evaluation.
7.Deep foundation design – types (methods, configuration, materials),
bearing capacity (axial and lateral) and settlements, testing and
evaluation.

The design of foundations of structures generally
requires a knowledge of such factors as:
a.The load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to

the foundation system.
b.The requirements of the local building code.
c.The behavior and stress-related deformability of soils
that will support the foundation system, and
d. the geological conditions of the soil under consideration.
Ocean Tower
EXAMPLE OF (South Padre Island’s Ocean Tower)
FOUNDATION
FAILURE – Ocean Tower was originally designed to
be a 31-story building which housed high-
end condominiums. However, construction
of the tower couldn’t be completed
because of foundation problems
discovered in early 2008. The expansive
soil beneath the tower began to compact,
causing the building to sink and lean.
Construction ceased and the building had
to be demolished in 2009.
2. Transcona Grain Elevator
EXAMPLE OF - Transcona Grain Elevator was a grain
FOUNDATION storage facility used by the Canadian Pacific
FAILURE Railway. The Transcona Grain Elevator
didn’t even last a day before foundation
problems surfaced. On October 18, 1913, the
building began to settle as grain was moved
indoors. In the first hour after unloading, the
building sank one foot into the ground. By
the next day, the building was tilted an entire
27 degrees to the west. Researchers found
that the foundation was extremely unstable
because it was constructed on stratified clay,
which contained layers of silt salt throughout
the layers of clay.
3. Leaning Tower of Pisa
EXAMPLE OF - When construction began on the
FOUNDATION Tower of Pisa 840 years ago, workers
FAILURE immediately ran into soil-related
foundation issues. Work stopped for
nearly a century due to political unrest in
Italy, but construction continued in 1272
despite the tower’s famous stature.
Attempts to compensate for poor soil
quality failed numerous times. Today, the
tower continues to its downward descent
but at a much slower pace due to
foundation repair. In at least one case,
foundation failure didn’t completely ruin a
building.
\
Note:
When Foundations provide the
determining support and resistance of the loads of
which the structures above. They serve as
foundation is the structural systems that transfer loads
most to the soil below and that provide
economical, the stability, including resistance to
engineer must overturning, sliding, and uplift, for the
consider the overall structure. Due to the
superstructure importance of their structural system
load, the subsoil to the overall structure, it is imperative
conditions, and that their structural integrity is
the desired maintained for the overall structure to
tolerable function.
settlement.
The Different
Types of
Foundation
Failures :
1. Overloading Overloading from the

superstructure can also create
foundation failure. Foundations can
fail by cracking when the design
moment and/or shear is above its
moment and/or shear capacity. Failure
can also occur when there are large
concentrated or point loads, which can
induce large punching shear onto the
foundation, and when there is over
designing of bearing pressure.


interface
2. Different Different parts of the foundation can
properties of soil rest on different properties of soil. For
at the foundation example, one part of the foundation can sit
on clay, while another part of the
foundation can sit on rock. When all
design checks are adequate for one part
of the foundation due to that part resting
on good soil and when checks fail for
another part of the foundation due to bad
soil properties at the other part of the
foundation, the whole foundation can fail.

The soil fill underneath the foundation might not

3. Insufficient be compacted properly and to its required degree of
soil compaction compaction. Since the soil is not compacted properly, air
voids can be created within the soil, in which soil and
water can displace in and out of. There will then be
movement within the soil, which causes swelling and
contracting. The swelling and contraction of the soil can
cause pressure to the foundation that the soil supports.
Air voids within the soil can cause loose soil or soil with
low density, which lacks adequate strength to support
the foundation. Poor compaction equipment can also
lead to foundation failure.

Therefore, it is best to compact the soil beneath
the foundation to its required compaction degree before
concrete placement of the foundation, in order to reduce
soil displacement, to increase subgrade reaction and soil
density, and to reduce differential and overall settlement
of the foundation.
4. Uneven The uneven distribution of loading from the

loading superstructure can induce uneven stresses at different
locations of the foundation. This can cause differential
settlement at locations where vertical structural elements,
such as columns and walls, directly transfer the
superstructure loads to the foundation. Differential
settlement can eventually lead to cracks at the
foundation.
5. Uneven Similar to the above scenario, uneven moisture

moisture levels of levels of the soil can cause soil swelling and contraction
soil beneath the at specific parts of the foundation. This can lead to stress
foundation at intersecting locations where the soil is swelling and
contracting and where the soil is not.
6. Transpiration
If there are trees adjacent to the foundation, the
trees can evaporate the water from the soil into its roots
and into the atmosphere. This can cause changes in the
moisture level of the soil.
Moisture levels of the soil can change due to

6.Changes in varying humidity levels, rainy weather, or poor drainage
moisture levels of conditions, which can cause soil to swell (or heave) and
soil beneath the contract, therefore leading to cracks. Similar to
foundation insufficient soil compaction, the voids within the soil can
be filled up by water or other fluids, which can create
pressure onto the soil particles from the fluid.

However, when there are dry periods, the
water evaporates from the soil and leaves from the
voids within the soil. This can cause soil shrinkage.
Moreover, when there are cracks within the foundation,
water seepage can also occur.
7. Vibration from Vibration from nearby construction can

adjacent displace soil particles underneath the foundation. This
can then create air voids within the soil, which can
construction
loosen up the soil and lower the soil density. The lower
the soil density, the lower the soil strength for the
support of the foundation. This will then cause
foundation failure.

Due to vibrations, granular soils can be readily

densified, structures may undergo significant settlement
(e.g. due to vibration of equipment nearby), mass of
foundation maybe increased , install sheet pile or
densify/inject the soil.
8. EXPLOSIONS & Earthwaves caused by quarry blasting, etc.,

EARTHQUAKES excavation through nuclear explosions. In Alaska, 1964
earthquake caused one of the largest earth slides.
9. FROST Certain soils under certain conditions expand

on freezing, frost heave, heave exerts forces large
enough to move and crack adjacent structures, thawing
of frozen soil, melted water becomes trapped, greatly
weakening the soil.
10. REGIONAL Large-scale pumping of oil and water can

SUBSIDENCE cause major settlements. Ex. The 7.5 m settlement of
41 km2 area of Long Beach, California.
Soil Exploration

Outline:
Introduction
Methods of investigation
Methods of boring
Soil samplers and sampling
Location and number of pits and borings
Penetrometer tests
Borehole logs
Geophysical methods
Example Problem

Introduction
Soil exploration is a part of site investigation.
Site investigation, in general deals with
determining in general, the suitability of the site
for the proposed construction.
The process of determining the layers of natural
soil deposits that will underlie a proposed structure
and their physical properties is generally referred
to as subsurface exploration

Site Investigation

Introduction (Cont’d)…
WHAT?
Attempt at understanding the subsurface conditions
such as:
 Soil and rock profile
 Gelogical features of the region
 Position and variation of ground water table
 Physical properties of soil and rock
 Contamination, if any
 General data of adjacent structures, hydrological data,

topography, soil maps, seismicity, etc.

WHY?
 To determine the type of foundation required
for the proposed project at the site, i.e. shallow
foundation or deep foundation.
 To make recommendations regarding the safe
bearing capacity or pile load capacity.
 Ultimately, it is the subsoil that provides the
ultimate support for the structures.

Failures

Leaning Tower of Pisa

and Sinkholes

 Execution:
 Collection of disturbed and/or
undisturbed samples of
subsurface strata from field.
 Conducting in-situ tests of
subsurface material and
obtaining properties directly or
indirectly.
 Study of ground water
conditions and collection of
sample for chemical analysis.
 Geophysical exploration, if
necessary.
 Laboratory testing on samples

HOW?
The three important aspect are planning, execution
and report writing.
Planning
 To minimize cost of explorations and yet give reliable data.
 Decide on quantity and quality depending on type, size and
importance of project and whether investigation is
preliminary or detailed.

Report writing:
 Description of site conditions – topographic features,
hydraulic conditions, existing structures, etc. supplemented
by plans/drawings.
 Description of nature, type and importance of proposed
construction
 Description of field and lab tests carried out.
 Analysis and discussion of data collected
 Preparation of charts, tables, graphs, etc.
 Calculations performed
 Recommendations

Methods of Investigation
Test pits:
 Permits visual inspection
of subsurface conditions
in natural state.
 Max. depth limited to 18 -
20 feet.
 Especially useful for
gravelly soil where
boreholes may be difficult.
 Sampling/testing done on
exposed surfaces.

A complete site investigation will consist of:

 Preliminary work
 Collecting general information and already existing data such as
study of geologic , seismic maps, etc. at or near site.
 Study site history – if previously used as quarry, agricultural
land, industrial unit, etc.
 Site Reconnaissance: Actual site inspection.

 To judge general suitability
 Decide exploration techniques

Exploration
 Preliminary Investigations: Exploratory borings or shallow test
pits, representative sampling, geophysical investigations, etc
 Detailed Investigations: Deep boreholes, extensive sampling,
in-situ testing, lab testing, etc.
 Depth and spacing: In general, depth of investigation should
be such that any/all strata that are likely to experience
settlement or failure due to loading. Spacing depends upon
degree of variation of surface topography and subsurface strata
in horizontal direction. Refer to Alam Singh.

Stratigraphy and Finds
Layer Soil Soil Colour Finds Chronology
L1 Sandy soil Gray 7.5YR 5/1 Modern Rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L2 Sandy soil Pinkish white 7.5YR 8/2 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L3 Sandy soil Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L4 Sandy soil Gray 7.5YR 6/1 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L5 Loamy soil Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6 Nil (original decomposed soil)
L6 Loamy soil Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8 Nil (original decomposed soil)
L7 Loamy soil, with Light red 2.5YR 6/8 Nil (original decomposed soil)
some
decomposed
bed rock texture
Test Pit Wall Photograph Test Pit Wall Drawing

Western Wall Section Western Wall Section Drawing


Methods of Boring
Another example of wash boring is called mud rotary

drilling (soil) or core drilling (rock).
Mud rotary
 Hollow drill rods with a drill bit is rotated into the soil. Drilling
mud is continuously pumped into the hole. The bit grinds the
soil and the return flow brings the cuttings to the surface.
Core drilling
 Used for obtaining rock cores.
 A core barrel is fitted with a drill bit is attached to hollow drill
rods.
 Examples: diamond coring, calyx or shot core drilling

Methods of Boring
Auger Borings:
 Simplest method of exploration and sampling.
 Power driven or hand operated.
 Max. depth 10 m
 Suitable in all soils above GWT but only in cohesive soil
below GWT
 Hollow stem augers used for sampling or conducting
Standard Penetration Tests.


Hand operated
augers
Power driven augers

Methods of Boring
Wash Boring:
 A casing is driven with a drop hammer. A hollow drill
rod with chopping bit is inserted inside the casing.
 Soil is loosened and removed from the borehole using
water or a drilling mud jetted under pressure.
 The water is jetted in the hole through the bottom of a
wash pipe and leaves the hole along with the loose soil,
from the annual space between the hole and wash pipe.
 The water reaches the ground level where the soil in
suspension is allowed to settle and mud is re-circulated.

Schematic for wash boring


Diamond Drill Bit
Tricone drill bit

Percussion drilling
 Grinding the soil by repeated lifting and dropping of heavy
chisels or drilling bits.
 Water is added to form slurry of cuttings.
 Slurry removed by bailers or pumps.
In general, a machine used to drill holes is called a

drill rig (generally power driven, but may be hand
driven).
A winch is provided to raise and lower the drilling
tools into the hole.

Probing or sounding methods:

 Drive a pipe or rod into the soil.
 Measure the resistance offered by the soil. Ex. CPT, SPT
Geophysical methods:
 Seismic refraction method
 Electrical resistivity method.

SOIL INDEX AND

CLASSIFICATION
Particle-size
classification
by
various system
SOIL INDEX AND

CLASSIFICATION
WATER FLOW
THROUGH
v = ki
SOILS
Hydraulic Conductivity
v = ki
Q = kiA
Range of Hydraulic Conductivity for Varoius Soils
TYPE OF SOIL HYDRAULIC

CONDUCTIVITY, k
(cm/sec)
Medium to Coarse Gravel Greater than 10 - 1
Coarse to Fine Sand 10 – 1 to 10 - 1
Fine Sand, Silty Sand 10 – 1 to 10 - 3
Silt, Clayey Silt, Silty Clay 10 – 3 to 10 - 6
Clays 10 – 6 or less
Hazen Formula
K = c D10
Capillarity
H = C / e D10
FLOW NETS
q = kH (Nf/Nd)
EFFECTIVE
STRESS CONCEPT
SOIL COMPRESSIBILITY
Settlement due to primary consolidation of soil

Consolidation settlement due to stresses caused
by footing
Settlement due to lowering of ground water table
Settlement Analysis



COMPRESSION IN SOIL
• Structure transfer loads to the subsoil through the
foundations.
• The effect of the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a

depth of about four times the width of the foundation.
• The soil within this depth gets compressed due to the

imposed stresses.

STRESSES IN SOIL
Stress Distribution in Soil is due to:
a. Self Weight
b. Surface Load

Stress due to self weight







Stress due to surface load










Example

Solution:


CONSOLIDATION
• The process in which reduction in volume takes place
by the gradual expulsion or absorption of water under
long-term static loads.
• When stress is applied to a soil, it causes the soil

particles to pack together more tightly. When this
occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will
be squeezed out of the soil.

SOIL
CONSOLIDATION
• Mechanical process by
which soil changes volume gradually
in response to a change in pressure.
• Soil is a two-phase material,

comprising soil grains and pore fluid,
usually groundwater.
• When soil saturated with water is

subjected to an increase in pressure
causes stiffness in water.
SOIL
CONSOLIDATION
• High volumetric stiffness of water
compared to the soil matrix means
that the water initially absorbs all the
change in pressure without changing
volume, creating excess pore water
pressure.
• As water diffuses away from regions

of high pressure due to seepage, the
soil matrix gradually takes up the
pressure change and shrinks in
volume.


























Time Rate , T = Tv
Where:
Hdr = one-half the thickness of the drainage layer, two
way drainage
= thickness of drainage layer, one way drainage
Tv = time factor
Cv = Coefficient of consolidation
Compressibility Parameters




















Example






SETTLEMENT • The amount of soil volume change

that will occur is often one of the
governing design criteria of a project.
• If the settlement is not kept to tolerable
limit, the desire use of the structure
may be impaired and the design life of
the structure may be reduced.
• It is therefore important to have a
means of prediction of the amount of
soil compression or consolidation.
• It is also important to know the rate of
consolidation as well as the total
consolidation to be expected.
SETTLEMENT


SHEAR
STRENGTH OF Shear strength
SOILS
The shear strength of a soil means the

relative resistance of that soil to sliding
when supporting a load. The highest
resistance to sliding occurs in soils that are
composed of clean gravel with less than 5
percent silt + clay. Shear strength of soils
decreases as the proportion of fine
particles increases. It is lowest in fine-
grained organic soils. For example, when
building a dam, it is important to remove all
of the organic soil to decrease the
possibility of sliding.
SHEAR STRENGTH IN SOIL


REFERENCES:
• Compressibility of Soil-Soil Mechanics and Foundations, University of
Connecticut (file:docsity-compressibility-of-soil-soil-mechanics-and-
foundations-lecture).
• http://www.fao.org/tempref/fi/cdrom/fao_training

EXERCISES #2
1. Explain what is meant by normally consolidated clay stratum and over-

consolidated clay stratum. Sketch typical results of consolidation test data to
a suitable plot relating the void ratio and consolidation pressure in each
case and show how preconsolidation can be estimated.
2. Determine the amount of settlement given the following data: Thickness of

compressible medium = 3 m Coefficient of volume decrease = 0.002 cm2/N
Pressure increment at the centre of the compressible medium = 75 kN/m2.
3. The subsurface consists of 6 m of sandy soil (γ = 18.4 kN/m3) underlain by a

deposit of clay (γ = 19.4 kN/m3). The water table is at 4.2 m below the ground
surface. Given the information (in the following table) from a consolidation test of
an undisturbed clay sample obtained from a depth of 9.0 m from the ground
surface, find Cc and preconsolidation pressure. Explain with reason whether this
is a normally or overconsolidated clay.



DESIGN OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS






FOUNDATION DESIGN



L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR

L.M. FABILLAR











Geotech 2 Foundation Engineering

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BS CIVIL ENGINEERING

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

a.The load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to

1. Overloading Overloading from the

The soil fill underneath the foundation might not

4. Uneven The uneven distribution of loading from the

5. Uneven Similar to the above scenario, uneven moisture

Moisture levels of the soil can change due to

7. Vibration from Vibration from nearby construction can

Due to vibrations, granular soils can be readily

8. EXPLOSIONS & Earthwaves caused by quarry blasting, etc.,

9. FROST Certain soils under certain conditions expand

10. REGIONAL Large-scale pumping of oil and water can

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

 General data of adjacent structures, hydrological data,

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Leaning Tower of Pisa

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

A complete site investigation will consist of:

 Site Reconnaissance: Actual site inspection.

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Test Pit Wall Photograph Test Pit Wall Drawing

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Another example of wash boring is called mud rotary

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Power driven augers

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Schematic for wash boring

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Diamond Drill Bit

Tricone drill bit

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

In general, a machine used to drill holes is called a

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Probing or sounding methods:

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

SOIL INDEX AND

SOIL INDEX AND

Range of Hydraulic Conductivity for Varoius Soils

TYPE OF SOIL HYDRAULIC

Settlement due to primary consolidation of soil

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

• The effect of the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a

• The soil within this depth gets compressed due to the

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE

Stress Distribution in Soil is due to:

WE BUILD ● WE INNOVATE ,● WE SERVE