Brain and Cranial Nerves

Week 9
Objectives
• Describe the parts of the brainstem and list their functions
• Describe the structure and the major functions of the cerebellum.
• Describe the major components of the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, and reticular formation and their general functions
• List the regions of the diencephalon, and indicate their major functions.
• Describe the external anatomy and the internal anatomy of the cerebrum.
• Describe the structure of the basal nuclei and limbic system
• Define the terms gyri and sulci. What structures do the
• longitudinal fissure, central sulcus, and lateral fissure separate?
• Define the terms cerebral cortex and cerebral medulla.
• Name the five lobes of the cerebrum, and describe their locations and functions.
• List three categories of nerve tracts in the cerebral medulla.
• Describe the membranes and spaces surrounding the central nervous system.
• Describe the production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid.
• Describe the blood supply to the brain.
• Describe the blood-brain barrier.
• Describe the formation of the neural tube, and list the structures that develop from its various parts
• Describe the distribution and functions of the cranial nerves.
Medulla Oblongata
• 3 cm long
• most inferior part of the
brainstem
• continuous inferiorly with the
spinal cord
• contains ascending and
descending nerve tracts; cranial
nerve nuclei; other, related
nuclei; and part of the reticular
formation
Medulla Oblongata
• Superficially blends with spinal
cord
Medulla Oblongata
• function as centers for reflexes,
such as those involved in the
• regulation of heart rate,
• blood vessel diameter,
• respiration,
• swallowing,
• vomiting,
• hiccupping,
• coughing, and sneezing
Pyramids
• Two prominent enlargements on
the anterior surface of the
medulla oblongata
• Broader near the pons and taper
toward the spinal cord
• are descending nerve tracts
involved in the conscious control
of skeletal muscles

Anterior view
Decussate
• Latin word decussatus means to
form an X
• Near their inferior ends of the
pyramids, most of the fibers of
the descending nerve tracts
cross to the opposite side

Pyramidal
decussation

Anterior view
Olives
• protrude from the anterior
surface of the medulla oblongata
• lateral to the superior margins of
the pyramids
• Are nuclei involved in functions
such as balance, coordination,
and modulation of sound from
the inner ear

Anterior view
Pons
• part of the brainstem just
superior to the medulla
oblongata
• contains ascending and
descending nerve tracts and
several nuclei.
• work with the respiratory
centers in the medulla to help
control respiratory movements
Pons nuclei
• anterior portion, relay
information from the cerebrum
to the cerebellum.
• posterior pons contains
• cranial nerves V (trigeminal),
• VI (abducens),
• VII (facial),
• VIII (vestibulocochlear)
• IX (glossopharyngeal)
Midbrain
• Mesencephalon Superior colliculus
Midbrain
Inferior colliculus
• superior to the pons and
contains the
• nuclei of cranial nerves III
(oculomotor),
• IV (trochlear),
• and V (trigeminal)
Cross Section Through the Midbrain
• Tectum consists of four nuclei
that form mounds on the dorsal
surface, collectively called
Corpora quadrigemina.
Corpora quadrigemina
Colliculus
• the two superior mounds are Superior colliculus
Midbrain
called superior colliculi, Inferior colliculus

• involved in visual reflexes, and

they receive input from the eyes,
• and the two inferior mounds are
called inferior colliculi
• involved in hearing and are an
integral part of the auditory
pathways in the CNS.
• Receive input from the skin, and
the cerebrum
Tegmentum
Red Nuclei
• named because in fresh brain
specimens, they are pinkish in
color as the result of an
abundant blood supply.
• The red nuclei aid in the
unconscious regulation and
coordination of motor activities
Cerebral peduncles
• the foot of a column
• constitute that portion of the Superior cerebellar
peduncle

midbrain ventral to the

tegmentum.
Middle
cerebellar
peduncle

• consist primarily of descending

tracts from the cerebrum to the Inferior
cerebellar
brainstem and spinal cord and peduncle

constitute one of the major CNS

motor pathways
Substantia nigra
• nuclear mass between the
tegmentum and cerebral peduncles
• containing cytoplasmic melanin
granules that give it a dark gray or
black color
• interconnected with other basal
nuclei of the cerebrum
• involved in maintaining muscle
tone and in coordinating
movements.
 Cerebellum
Little brain.
Cerebellum
• Attached to the brainstem
posterior to the pons
• It communicates with other
regions of the CNS through three
large nerve tracts which connect
the cerebellum to the midbrain
• superior
• middle
• inferior cerebellar peduncles
Folia
• The cerebellar cortex has ridges
called folia.
Cerebellum
• Has a gray cortex and nuclei,
with white medulla in between
• The white matter of the medulla
resembles a branching tree and
is called the arbor vitae
3 parts of Cerebellum
• Flocculonodular lobe
• floccular, meaning a tuft of wool
• small inferior part
• helps control balance and eye movements.
• Vermis
• narrow central
• Worm shaped
• involved in the
• control of posture, locomotion, and fine
motor coordination
• lateral hemispheres
• 2 large part
• involved, with the cerebral cortex of the
frontal lobe, in planning, practicing, and
learning complex movements
Diencephalon
Diencephalon
• part of the brain between the
brainstem and the cerebrum
• Its main components are the
thalamus, subthalamus,
epithalamus, and hypothalamus.
Thalamus
Interthalamic adhesion
• or intermediate mass
• two large, lateral portions
connected in the center by a
small stalk

Interthalamic
adhesion
Third Ventricle
Medial geniculate nucleus
• Latin, genu, meaning bent like a
knee
• Most sensory output to
thalamus are auditory
information thru sensory
synapse
Lateral geniculate nucleus
• Most sensory output to
thalamus are visual information
thru lateral geniculate nucleus
Thalamic functions
• The ventral anterior and ventral
lateral nuclei are involved in
motor functions
• Anterior and medial nuclei are
connected to the limbic system
and to the prefrontal cortex
• mood modification
Thalamic functions
• lateral dorsal nucleus is
connected to other thalamic
nuclei and to the cerebral cortex
• involved in regulating emotions.
• lateral posterior nucleus and the
pulvinar (pillow)
• also have connections to other
thalamic nuclei and are involved in
sensory integration.
Subthalamus
• small area immediately inferior
to the thalamus
• contains several ascending and
descending nerve tracts and the
subthalamic nuclei.
Subthalamic nuclei.
• Associated with the basal nuclei
• Involved in controlling motor
functions
Epithalamus
• superior and posterior to the
thalamus
• consists of habenular nuclei and
the pineal body
Habenular nuclei

• Influenced by the sense of smell

and are involved in emotional
and visceral responses to odors Habenular nucleus
Epithalamus

Pineal body
Pineal body

• shaped somewhat like a

pinecone, from which the name
pineal is derived. Habenular nucleus
Epithalamus
• It appears to play a role in Pineal body

controlling the onset of puberty,

but data are inconclusive,
• active research continues in this
field.
• The pineal body also may
influence the sleep-wake cycle
Hypothalamus
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
• Most inferior portion of the
diencephalon
• Contains several small nuclei and nerve
tracts
• plays an important role in controlling
the endocrine system because it
regulates the pituitary gland’s
secretion of hormones
• which influence functions as diverse as
metabolism, reproduction, responses
to stressful stimuli, and urine
production
Hypothalamus provide input from
• (1) visceral organs;
• (2) taste receptors of the tongue;
• (3) the limbic system, which is
involved in responses to smell;
• (4) specific cutaneous areas, such
as the nipples and external
genitalia; and
• (5) the prefrontal cortex of the
cerebrum carrying information
relative to “mood” through the
thalamus.
Mammillary bodies
• most conspicuous nuclei
• Appear as bulges on the ventral
surface of the diencephalon.
• involved in olfactory reflexes and
emotional responses to odors
Infundibulum
• extends from the floor of the
hypothalamus and connects it to
the posterior pituitary gland, or
neurohypophysis

Infundibulum

Pituitary gland
Hypothalamic Functions
Autonomic
• Helps control heart rate, urine
release from the bladder,
movement of food through the
digestive tract, and blood vessel
diameter
Endocrine
• Helps regulate pituitary gland
secretions and influences
metabolism, ion balance, sexual
development, and sexual
functions
Muscle Control
• Controls muscles involved in
swallowing and stimulates
shivering in several muscles
Temperature regulation
• Promotes heat loss when the
hypothalamic temperature
increases by increasing sweat
production (anterior
hypothalamus) and
• promotes heat production when
the hypothalamic temperature
decreases by promoting
shivering (posterior
hypothalamus
Regulation of food and water intake
• Hunger center promotes eating
and satiety center inhibits
eating; thirst center promotes
water intake
Emotions
• Large range of emotional
influences over body functions;
directly involved in stress-related
and psychosomatic illnesses and
with feelings of fear and rage
Regulation of the sleep– wake cycle
• Coordinates responses sleep–
wake cycle with the other areas
to the of the brain (e.g., the
reticular activating of the brain
(e.g., the reticular activating)
Cerebrum
Cerebrum
• largest portion of the total brain
weight
• 1200 g in females and 1400 g in
males
• Brain size is related to body size;
larger brains are associated with
larger bodies, not with greater
intelligence.
Cerebrum
• is divided into left and right
hemispheres

longitudinal fissure
Gyri
• conspicuous features Gyri

• on the surface of each

hemisphere are numerous folds

longitudinal fissure
Sulci Sulci

• intervening grooves between the

gyri

longitudinal fissure
Central sulcus,
• Extends across the lateral surface
of the cerebrum from superior to
inferior, is located about midway
along the length of the brain.
• The central sulcus is located
between the precentral gyrus
anteriorly, which is the primary
motor cortex,
• and a postcentral gyrus
posteriorly, which is the primary
somatic sensory cortex Central
Precentral Postcentral
gyrus sulcus gyrus
Frontal lobe
• important in voluntary motor
function, motivation, aggression,
the sense of smell, and mood
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
• functions in the reception and
integration of visual input and is
not distinctly separate from the
other lobes
Temporal lobe
• Receives and evaluates input for
smell and hearing and plays an
important role in memory.
• Its anterior and inferior portions
are referred to as the “psychic
cortex,” and they are associated
with such brain functions as
abstract thought and judgment
Lateral fissure
• Separate the temporal lobe from
the rest of cerebrum
Insula
• Dee p within the lateral fissure
• often referred to as a fifth lobe
Cortex
• gray matter on the outer surface
of the cerebrum
• and clusters of gray matter deep
inside the brain are nuclei
Cerebral medulla.
• Between the cortex and nuclei
• a general term meaning the
center of a structure, or marrow
• consists of nerve tracts that
connect the cerebral cortex to
other areas of cortex or other
parts of the CNS.
• These tracts fall into three main
categories
3 nerve tracts that connect the cerebral cortex
to other areas of cortex
• association fibers, which connect
areas of the cerebral cortex
within the same hemisphere;
(front to back)
• commissural fibers, which
connect one cerebral hemisphere
to the other;
• Projection fibers, which are
between the cerebrum and other
parts of the brain and spinal cord
Basal Nuclei
Basal Nuclei
• Basal Ganglia
• group of functionally related
nuclei located bilaterally in the
inferior cerebrum, diencephalon,
and midbrain
• involved in the control of motor
functions
Corpus striatum
• striped body
• include the caudate (having a
tail) nucleus and lentiform (lens- Lentiform nucleus Corpus
shaped) Caudate nucleus
striatum

• Largest nuclei of the brain and

occupy a large part of the
cerebrum.
Basal Nuclei

• The subthalamic nucleus is Subthalamic

located in the diencephalon, and nucleus

the substantia nigra is located in

the midbrain

Substantia nigra
(in midbrain)
Limbic System
Limbic System
• Parts of the cerebrum and
diencephalon are grouped
together
• plays a central role in basic
survival functions such as
memory, reproduction, and
nutrition.
• involved in emotions and
memory.
Components of Limbic System
• Cingulate gyrus
• Located along the inner surface of the longitudinal
fissure just above the corpus callosum
• Hippocampus
• Together w/ Cinagulate gyrus and nuclei, such as
anterior nuclei of the thalamus and the habenular
nuclei in the epithalamus
• Parts of the basal nuclei
• Hypothalamus,
• especially the mamillary bodies
• Olfactory cortex
• Fornix
• tracts connecting the various cortical areas and nuclei
• connects the hippocampus to the thalamus and
mammillary bodies
• amygdaloid nucleus.
• Connected to hippocampus
Meninges and Cerebrospinal
Fluid
Meninges
• Three connective tissue
membranes, the meninges
surround and protect the brain
and spinal cord Dura Matter
Dura mater
• The most superficial and thickest
membrane
• tough mother Dura Matter

• tightly attached to and

continuous with the periosteum
of the cranial cavity, forming a
single functional layer
Dural folds
• The dura mater and dural folds
help hold the brain in place
within the skull and keep it from
moving around too freely.
Dural venous sinuses
• Formed by separation of dura Dural venous sinus
matter into three dural folds (superior sagittal sinus)

around the brain

• collect most of the blood that
returns from the brain, as well as
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from
around the brain
• The sinuses then empty into the
veins that exit the skull
Dural venous sinus
(inferior sagittal sinus)
Falx cerebri
• Located between the two
cerebral hemispheres in the
longitudinal fissure

Falx cerebri
Tentorium cerebelli
• Between the cerebrum and
cerebellum
Arachnoid mater
• cobwebs
• very thin, wispy

Arachnoid mater
Subdural space
• space between this membrane
and the dura mater
Subdural space
(potential space)
Pia Mater
• Third meningeal layer
• is bound very tightly to the
surface of the brain.
Subarachnoid space
• Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater
• Contains web like strands of the arachnoid mater and blood vessels and is
filled with CSF

Subarachnoid space
Subdural hematoma
Cranial Hematoma
Ventricles
Ependymal cells
• interior of the (ventricles) tube is
lined with a single layer of
epithelial cells
Lateral ventricle
• Each cerebral hemisphere
contains a relatively large cavity,
the lateral ventricle
Septa pellucida
• Septum: translucent walls
• Lie in the midline just inferior to
the corpus callosum and usually
are fused with each other
Third ventricle
• Located In the center of the
diencephalon between the two
halves of the thalamus.
• communicates with the fourth
ventricle through a narrow
canal, the cerebral aqueduct
Cerebral aqueduct
• aqueduct of Sylvius
• passes through the midbrain
2 Lateral ventricles
• communicate with the third
ventricle through two
interventricular foramina
• can be thought of as the first and
second ventricles in the
numbering scheme, but they are
not designated as such.
Fourth ventricle
• is in the inferior part of the pontine
region and the superior region of
the medulla oblongata at the base
of the cerebellum.
• continuous with the central canal
of the spinal cord, which extends
nearly the full length of the cord.
• is also continuous with the
subarachnoid space through two
apertures in its walls and one in
the roof.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• similar to serum with most of the
proteins removed.
• It bathes the brain and the spinal cord
and provides a protective cushion
around the CNS.
• It also provides some nutrients to CNS
tissues.
• About 80%–90% of the CSF is
produced by specialized ependymal
cells within the lateral ventricles, with
the remainder produced by similar
cells in the third and fourth ventricles
Choroid plexuses
• Specialized ependymal cells,
their support tissue, and the
associated blood vessels
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• fills the ventricles, the
subarachnoid space of the brain
and spinal cord, and the central
canal of the spinal cord.
• Approximately 23 mL of fluid fills
the ventricles, and 117 mL fills
the subarachnoid space.
 CSF flow through the ventricles and
subarachnoid space
1. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is
produced by the choroid
plexuses of each of the four
ventricles (inset)
2. CSF from the lateral ventricles
flows through the
interventricular foramina to
the third ventricle
 CSF flow through the ventricles and
subarachnoid space
3. CSF flows from the third ventricle
through the cerebral aqueduct to the
fourth ventricle.
4. CSF exits the fourth ventricle through
the lateral and median apertures and
enters the subarachnoid space. Some
CSF enters the central canal of the
spinal cord
5. CSF flows through the subarachnoid
space to the arachnoid granulations
in the superior sagittal sinus, where it
enters the venous circulation (inset).
Hydrocephalus
• Blocked foramina of the fourth
ventricle or the cerebral
aqueduct
• Blocked before birth or because of
tumor at later life
• fluid builds inside the brain,
causing pressure that
compresses the nervous tissue
and dilates the ventricles
Treatment of Hydrocephalus
• by placing a drainage tube
(shunt) between the brain
ventricles and abdominal cavity
to eliminate the high internal
pressures.
• There is some risk of infection
being introduced into the brain
through these shunts,
• However, shunts must be
replaced as the person grows.
Hydrocephalus
Blood Supply to the Brain
Blood Supply to the Brain
• brain requires a tremendous
amount of blood to maintain its
normal functions
• it receives approximately 15%-20%
of blood pumped by the heart.
• Interruption of the brain’s blood
supply for only seconds can cause
unconsciousness
• interruption of the blood supply for
minutes can cause irreversible brain
damage.
• This extreme dependence on
blood supply results from the
brain’s very high metabolic rate
and, as a result,
• its extreme dependence on a
constant supply of oxygen and
glucose.Brain cells are not
capable of storing high-energy
molecules for any length of time
and depend almost exclusively
on glucose as their energy source
Internal carotid arteries
• Blood reaches the brain through
the internal carotid arteries,
which ascend to the head along
the anterior-lateral part of the
neck,
• enter the cranial cavity through
the carotid canals, and the
vertebral arteries enter by the
foramen magnum
Vertebral arteries
• Ascend along the posterior part
of the neck, through the
transverse foramina of the
cervical vertebrae.
• The vertebral arteries join
together to form the basilar
artery,
Basilar artery
• lies on the ventral surface of the
brainstem.
• lies on the ventral surface of the
brainstem.
• The basilar artery and internal
carotid arteries contribute to the
cerebral arterial circle
Cerebral arterial circle
• Circle of Willis
• Branches from this circle and
from the basilar artery supply
blood to the brain
Cerebral arterial circle
• the anterior, middle, and posterior
cerebral arteries.
• The middle cerebral artery supplies
most of the lateral surface of each
cerebral hemisphere.
• The anterior cerebral artery
supplies the medial portion of the
parietal and frontal lobes. The
posterior cerebral artery supplies
the occipital lobe and the medial
surface of the temporal lobe.
blood–brain barrier
• The arteries within the substance of the
brain quickly divide into capillaries.
• The endothelial cells of these capillaries
are completely surrounded by tight
junctions,
• which prevent movement of most
substances between epithelial cells.
• Movement of materials through
epithelial cells is regulated by those cells.
• The capillary endothelial cells, under the
influence of the foot processes of
astrocytes within the brain tissue and
the basement membrane in between
blood–brain barrier
• Lipid-soluble substances, such as
nicotine, ethanol, and heroin,
can diffuse through the blood–
brain barrier and enter the brain.
• Water-soluble molecules such as
amino acids and glucose move
across the blood–brain barrier
by mediated transport
Formation of the Neural Tube
Cranial Nerves
Functions
• Given cranial nerve may have one or
more of three functions:
• Sensory
• functions include the special senses like
vision and the more general senses like
touch and pain
• Somatic motor
• functions refer to the control of skeletal
muscles through motor neurons.
• Proprioception
• informs the brain about the position of
various body parts, including joints and
muscles.
Olfactory (I) and optic (II) nerves
• are exclusively sensory and are
involved in the special senses of
smell and vision, respectively.
Oculomotor nerve (III)
• innervates four of the six
muscles that move the eyeball
and the levator palpebrae
superioris muscle, which raises
the superior eyelid.
• innervate smooth muscles in the
eye and regulate the size of the
pupil and the shape of the lens
of the eye.
Trochlear nerve (IV)
• is a somatic motor nerve that
innervates one of the six eye
muscles responsible for moving
the eyeball
Trigeminal nerve (V)
• has somatic motor, proprioceptive, and
cutaneous sensory functions. It supplies
motor innervation to the muscles of
mastication, one middle ear muscle,
one palatine muscle, and two throat
muscles.
• In addition to proprioception
associated with its somatic motor
functions, the trigeminal nerve also
carries proprioception from the
temporomandibular joint. Damage to
the trigeminal nerve may impede
chewing
Abducens nerve VI
• somatic motor nerve that
innervates one of the six eye
muscles responsible for moving
the eyeball.
facial nerve VII
• is somatic motor, sensory, and
parasympathetic. It controls all the
muscles of facial expression, a small
muscle in the middle ear, and two
throat muscles.
• It is sensory for the sense of taste in
the anterior two-thirds of the tongue
• The facial nerve supplies
parasympathetic innervation to the
submandibular and sublingual salivary
glands and to the lacrimal glands.
Vestibulocochlear nerve VIII
• like the olfactory and optic
nerves, is exclusively sensory
and transmits action potentials
from the inner ear responsible
for the special senses of hearing
and balance
Glossopharyngeal nerve IX
• somatic motor, sensory, and parasympathetic
and has both sensory and parasympathetic
ganglia
• somatic motor to one muscle of the pharynx
and supplies parasympathetic innervation to
the parotid salivary glands.
• sensory for the sense of taste in the posterior
third of the tongue.
• supplies tactile sensory innervation from the
posterior tongue, middle ear, and pharynx and
transmits sensory stimulation from receptors in
the carotid arteries and the aortic arch, which
monitor blood pressure and blood carbon
dioxide, blood oxygen, and blood pH levels
Vagus nerve X
• somatic motor, sensory, and parasympathetic
and has both sensory and parasympathetic
ganglia
• Innervate most of soft palate, pharynx, and
larynx
• sensory for taste from the root of the tongue
• sensory for the inferior pharynx and the
larynx and assists the glossopharyngeal
nerve in transmitting sensory stimulation
from receptors in the carotid arteries and the
aortic arch,
• which monitor blood pressure and carbon
dioxide, oxygen, and pH levels in the blood
Accessory XI and Hypoglossal XII nerves
• are somatic motor nerves. The accessory
nerve has both a cranial and a spinal
component.
• The cranial component joins the vagus
nerve and participates in its function.
• The spinal component of the accessory
nerve provides the major innervation to
the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles of the neck and shoulder.
• The hypoglossal nerve supplies the
intrinsic tongue muscles, three of the four
extrinsic tongue muscles, and the
thyrohyoid and the geniohyoid muscles
 I Olfactory Sense of smell

II Optic Sense of sight

III Oculomotor Movement of the eyeball; constriction of pupil in bright light or for near
vision

2 optic
IV Trochlear Movement of eyeball
3oculomotor 1 olfactory
4 trochlear V Trigeminal Sensation in face, scalp, and teeth; contraction of chewing muscles
6 Abducens

VI Abducens Movement of the eyeball

5
trigeminal VII Facial Sense of taste; contraction of facial muscles; secretion of saliva
7 Facial

VIII Acoustic Sense of hearing; sense of equilibrium

(vestibulocochlear)

IX Glossopharyngeal Sense of taste; sensory for cardiac, respiratory, and blood pressure
reflexes;
9 Glossopharygeal 8 Acoustic contraction of pharynx; secretion of saliva
X Vagus Sensory in cardiac, respiratory, and blood pressure reflexes; sensory and
motor
to larynx (speaking); decreases heart rate; contraction of alimentary tube
(peristalsis); increases digestive secretions
10 Vagus XI Accessory Contraction of neck and shoulder muscles; motor to larynx (speaking)
12 Hypoglossal
XII Hypoglossal Movement of the tongue
11
Accessory
References
• Seeley 6th edition
• Seeley 9th edition