BEEE Module 1 Circuits

Topic for the class: BASIC LAWS AND THEOREMS
Module 1 : BASIC LAWS AND THEOREMS

Date & Time :07/12/2020 10:00AM
Sri K Manohar
Assistant Professor,
Department of EECE
GITAM Institute of Technology (GIT)
Visakhapatnam – 530045.
Email: rmolavan@gitam.edu, mkintali@gitam.edu
Dept of EECE, GIT , GITAM deemed to be University

Thursday, May 4, 2023 1
19EEE131 : Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Textbooks
For Entire For Module II and III For Module I only

syllabus only

Course objectives
To impart basic knowledge of electrical quantities such as current,
voltage, power, energy and frequency to understand the impact of
technology in a global and societal context.
1. Provide working knowledge for the analysis of basic d.c and a.c
circuits used in electrical and electronic devices.
2. To explain the working principle, construction, applications of d.c
machines, transformers, rectifiers and op-Amps.
3. Highlight the importance of transfer in voltage and current of electric
power in electrical and electronic circuits.
Learning Outcomes
• Students will be able to learn techniques of solving circuits involving
different active and passive elements at the end of session or after
hearing a class
• At the end of this lecture/ session, Students will be able

• to analyze the behavior of the circuit’s response in time domain.
• To analyze the behavior of the circuit’s response in frequency domain.
• To understand the significance of network functions.
•
Syllabus Module 1 : Basic laws and Theorems
L T P C
3 1 3 5.5 (10L + 6P)
Basic laws and Theorems: Ohms law, Kirchhoff's Laws, series and
parallel circuits, source transformations, delta-wye conversion. Mesh
analysis, nodal analysis. Linearity and superposition theorem,
Thevenin's and Norton's theorem with simple examples, maximum
power transfer theorem with simple examples.

The SI System
Base units:
– meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A)
– also: kelvin, mole, and candela
Derived units:
– work or energy: joule (J)
– power (rate of doing work): watt (W)
– 1 W = 1 J/s

SI: Units and Prefixes
Any measurement can be expressed in terms of a unit, or a unit with a
“prefix” modifier.
FACTOR NAME SYMBOL

10-9 Nano n
10-6 Micro μ
10-3 milli m
103 kilo k
106 mega M

Charge
Charge is conserved: it is neither created nor destroyed
Symbol: Q or q. units are coulomb (C)
the smallest charge, the electronic charge, is carried by an electron

(−1.602×10-19 C) or a proton (+1.602×10-19 C)
in most circuits, the charges in motion are electrons

Current and Charge
Current is the rate of charge flow:

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second (or 1 A = 1 C/s)

Current and Charge
• Current (designated by I or i) is the rate of flow of charge

• Current must be designated with both a direction and a magnitude
• These two currents are the same:

Voltage
• When 1 J of work is required to

move 1 C of charge from A to B,
there is a voltage of 1 volt
between A and B.
• Voltage (V or v) across an
element requires both a
magnitude and a polarity.
• Example: (a)=(b), (c)=(d)

Power: p = v i
The power required to push a

current i (C/s) into a voltage v
(J/C) is p = vi ( J/s = W).
When power is positive, the

element is absorbing energy.
When power is negative, the

element is supplying energy.

Example: Power
How much power is absorbed by the three elements above?
Pa = + 6 W, Pb = +6 W, Pc = -20 W.
(Note: (c) is actually supplying power)
Circuit Elements
• A circuit element usually has two terminals

(sometimes three or more).
• The relationship between the voltage v across

the terminals and the current i through the
device defines the circuit element model.

Voltage Sources
• An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that will maintain the specified voltage vs across
its terminals.
• The current will be determined by other circuit elements.

Current Sources
• An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains the specified current flow is
through its terminals.
• The voltage is determined by other circuit elements.

Battery as a Voltage Source
• A voltage source is an idealization (no limit on current) and generalization (voltage can be time-
varying) of a battery.
• A battery supplies a constant “dc” voltage V but in practice a battery has a maximum power.

Dependent Sources
Dependent current sources (a) and (b) maintain a current specified by another circuit variable.
Dependent voltage sources (c) and (d) maintain a voltage specified by another circuit variable.

Ohm’s Law: Resistance
• A (linear) resistor is an element for which
• v=iR
• where the constant R is a resistance.
• The equation is known as “Ohm’s Law.”
• The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).

Resistors
(a) typical resistors (b) power resistor
(c) a 10 TΩ resistor (d) circuit symbol

The i-v Graph for a Resistor
For a resistor, the plot of current versus voltage is a straight line:
In this example, the

slope is 4 A / 8 V or
0.5 Ω-1.
This is the graph for a

2 ohm resistor.

Power Absorption
Resistors absorb power: since v=iR
p=vi = v /R = i R 2 2
Positive power means the device is absorbing energy.

Power is always positive for a resistor!

Example: Resistor Power
A 560 Ω resistor is connected to a circuit which causes a current of 42.4
mA to flow through it.
Calculate the voltage across the resistor and the power it is dissipating.
v = iR = (0.0424)(560) = 23.7 V
p = i 2R = (0.0424)2(560) = 1.007 W

Wire Gauge and Resistivity
The resistance of a wire is determined by the resistivity

of the conductor as well as the geometry:
R=ρl/A
[In most cases, the resistance of wires can be assumed to be 0 ohms.]

Conductance
• We sometimes prefer to work with the reciprocal of resistance (1/R),
which is called conductance (symbol G, unit siemens (S)).
• A resistor R has conductance G=1/R.
• The i-v equation (i.e. Ohm’s law) can be written as

i=Gv

Open circuit and Short Circuit
• An open circuit between A and B means i=0.
• Voltage across an open circuit: any value.
• An open circuit is equivalent to R = ∞ Ω.
• A short circuit between A and B means v=0.

• Current through a short circuit: any value.
• A short circuit is equivalent to R = 0 Ω.

Circuit Elements
Resistor
Which can be touched

Lumped physically eg R, L,C in Inductor
Laboratory
Capacitor
Passive Circuit elements
Resistor
Circuit Elements Distibuted through out

lines Eg transmission
Distributed Inductor
lines, which cannot be
touched
Active Circuit Elements Thyristors, Transistors Capacitor
Lumped circuit Property

element
Resistor Resistance
Inductor Inductance
Capacitor Capacitance

Distributed elements

Electrical Resistance is the property of a
material by virtue of which it opposes the
flow of electrons through the material
Resistance Resistance restricts the flow of electric

current through the material
The Unit of resistance (R) being Ohm Ω

Resistance

Inductance is property of a material by virtue of
which it opposes any change of magnitude or
direction of electric current passing through the
conductor
Inductance A pure inductor doesnot dissipate energy but

stores energy in the form of electromagnetic
form
The Unit of inductance (L) being ‘henry’ given by

faradays laws of electro magnetic induction

Inductance

Inductor

Inductance

Inductance

Inductance

Capacitance is property of a material by virtue
of which it opposes any sudden change of
magnitude electric voltage across the
conductor
Capacitance It is the capability of an element to store

electric charge within it
The Unit of Capacitance (C) being ‘farad’ [F]

Capacitor

Capacitance

Voltage-Current Relation ship of Circuit Elements

Sign convention in passive elements and sources
A rise in potential can be considered as positive and

fall in potential can be considered as negative
When current flows through a resistor there is a

voltage drop across it.
If we go through the resistance in same direction as

the current, there is a fall in potential and so the
sign of this voltage drop is negative.

Sign Convention in passive elements and sources

Node, Path, Loop, Branch & Mesh
• these two networks are equivalent
• there are three nodes and five branches
• A node is a junction where two or more circuit elements are

connected together
• An element or number of elements connected between two nodes
constitute a branch
• a path is a sequence of nodes
• a loop is a closed (circular) path of a circuit
• Mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be
further divided into other loops.
* All meshes are loops but all loops are not meshes
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KCL: The algebraic sum of the currents entering any

node is zero.
iA + iB + (−iC) + (−iD) = 0
KCL: Alternative Forms
• Current IN is zero:
iA + iB + (−iC) + (−iD) = 0
• Current OUT is zero:

(-iA )+ (-iB ) + iC + iD = 0
• Current IN=OUT:
iA+ iB = iC + iD
Example of KCL Application
Find the current through resistor R3 if it is known that the voltage source supplies a
current of 3 A.
Answer: i =6 A

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
KVL: The algebraic sum of the voltages around any

closed path is zero.
v1 + (-v2 )+ (−v3) = 0

KVL: Alternative Forms
• Sum of RISES is zero (clockwise from B):

v1 +(- v2 ) + v3 = 0
• Sum of DROPS is zero (clockwise from B):

(-v1 ) + v2 + (-v3 ) = 0
• Two paths, same

voltage (A to B):
v1 = (-v3 ) + v2
Example: Applying KVL
Find vR2 (the voltage across R2) and the voltage vx.
Answer: vR2 = 32 V and vx= 6 V.

Applying KVL, KCL, Ohm’s
Example: find the current ix and the voltage vx
Answer: vx= 12 V and ix =120 mA

Applying KVL, KCL, Ohm’s
Solve for the voltage vx and and the current ix
Answer: vx=8 V and ix= 1 A

Series Connections
All elements in a series circuit carry the same current.

Parallel Connections
Elements in a circuit having a common voltage across them are said to be
connected in parallel.
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Example: Single Loop Circuit
Calculate the power absorbed by each circuit element.
Answer:
p120V = −960 W, p30 = 1920 W
pdep = −1920 W, p15 = 960 W

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Thursday, May 4, 2023
Example: Single Node-Pair Circuit
Find the voltage v and the currents i1 and i2.
Answer: v = 2 V, i1 = 60 A, and i2 = 30 A

Example: Single Node-Pair Circuit
Determine the value of v and the power supplied by the independent current
source.
Answer: v = 14.4 V, power from current source is 345.6 mW

Series and Parallel Sources
Voltage sources connected in series can be combined into an equivalent
voltage source

Series and Parallel Sources
Current sources connected in parallel can be combined into an equivalent

current source

Impossible Circuits
• Our circuit models are idealizations that can lead to apparent physical
absurdities:
• Vs in parallel (a) and Is in series (c) can lead to “impossible circuits”

Resistors in Series
Using KVL shows:
Req = R1 + R2 + … + RN
Example: Circuit Simplifying
Find i and the power supplied by the 80 V source.
Answer: i = 3 A and p = 240 W supplied

Resistors in Parallel
Using KCL shows:

Two Resistors in Parallel
Two resistors in parallel can be combined using the

product / sum shortcut.

Voltage Division
Resistors in series “share” the voltage applied to them.

Example: Voltage Division
Find vx

Current Division
Resistors in parallel “share” the current through them.

Example: Current Division
Find i3(t)
Answer: i3(t) = 1.333 sin t V

(a, b) Terminal B is 5 V positive with
(a, b) These are inadequate definitions of a respect to terminal A; (c,d) terminal
voltage. (c) A correct definition includes A is 5 V positive with respect to
both a symbol for the variable and a plus- terminal B.
minus symbol pair.

If the current arrow is directed into the “ +” marked terminal of an
element, then p = vi yields the absorbed power. A negative value
indicates that power is actually being generated by the element.
If the current arrow is directed out of the “ +” terminal of an element,

then p = vi yields the supplied power. A negative value in this case indicates
that power is actually being absorbed instead of generated.
Find the power absorbed by each element in the circuit below.

(a) Series connected voltage sources can be replaced by a
single source. (b) Parallel current sources can be replaced
by a single source.

Examples of circuits with multiple sources,
some of which are “illegal” as they violate
Kirchhoff’s laws.

ies combination of
Electrically
t.
(a) Series combination of N resistors. (b) Electrically equivalent circuit.

Beginning with a simple KCL equation,
(a) A circuit with N
n parallel.
alent circuit.
or
Thus,
A special case worth remembering is
(a) A circuit with N resistors in

parallel. (b) Equivalent circuit.

We may find v2 by applying KVL
and Ohm’s law:
so
Thus,
An illustration of
voltage division.
or
For a string of N series resistors, we

may write:

Use voltage division to
determine vx in the adjacent
circuit.

The current flowing through R2 is
or
An illustration of For a parallel combination

current division. of N resistors, the current
through Rk is

Determine the current Ix if I1
= 100 mA.

Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis

Obtain values for the unknown voltages across the
elements in the circuit below.
At node 1
At node 2

(a) The circuit of Example 4.2 with a 22-V source in
place of the 7-W resistor. (b) Expanded view of the
region defined as a supernode; KCL requires that all
currents flowing into the region must sum to zero, or
we would pile up or run out of electrons.
At node 1:
At the “supernode:”

Determine the node-to-reference voltages in the circuit below.

Examples of planar and nonplanar networks; crossed wires without
a solid dot are not in physical contact with each other.

branches identified by
er a path nor a loop. (b)
re is not a path, since it
by passing through the
This path is a loop but
closes other loops. (d)
p but not a mesh. (e, f)
both a loop and a mesh.
(a) The set of branches identified by the heavy lines is neither a path nor a
loop. (b) The set of branches here is not a path, since it can be traversed
only by passing through the central node twice. (c) This path is a loop but
not a mesh, since it encloses other loops. (d) This path is also a loop but
not a mesh. (e, f) Each of these paths is both a loop and a mesh.

Mesh Current Analysis

Determine the two mesh currents, i1 and i2, in the circuit below.
“Determine the
currents, i1 and i2,
uit below.”
For the left-hand mesh,

-42 + 6 i1 + 3 ( i1 - i2 ) = 0
For the right-hand mesh,

3 ( i2 - i1 ) + 4 i2 - 10 = 0
Solving, we find that i1 = 6 A and i2 = 4 A.

(The current flowing downward through the 3-W resistor is
therefore i1 - i2 = 2 A. )

Find the three mesh currents in the circuit below.
Creating a “supermesh” from meshes 1 and 3:

[1]
Around mesh 2:
= 0 [2]
Finally, we relate the currents in meshes 1 and 3:

[3]
Rearranging,
[1]
[2]
[3]
Solving,
i1 = 9 A, i2 = 2.5 A, and i3 = 2 A.

Find the three mesh currents in the circuit below.
Creating a “supermesh” from meshes 1 and 3:

-7 + 1 ( i1 - i2 ) + 3 ( i3 - i2 ) + 1 i3 = 0 [1]
Around mesh 2:
1 ( i 2 - i 1 ) + 2 i 2 + 3 ( i 2 - i3 ) = 0 [2]
Finally, we relate the currents in meshes 1 and 3:

i1 - i3 = 7 [3]
Rearranging,
i1 - 4 i 2 + 4 i 3 = 7 [1]
-i1 + 6 i2 - 3 i3 = 0 [2]
i1 - i3 = 7 [3]
Solving,
i1 = 9 A, i2 = 2.5 A, and i3 = 2 A.

Superposition theorem:
Linear Elements and Circuits
• a linear circuit element has a linear voltage-current relationship:

– if i(t) produces v(t), then Ki(t) produces Kv(t)
– if i1(t) produces v1(t) and i2(t) produces v2(t), then i1(t) + i2(t) produces v1(t) + v2(t),
• resistors, sources are linear elements1
• a linear circuit is one with only linear elements
1
Dependent sources need linear control equations to be linear elements.

The Superposition Concept
For the circuit shown, the solution can be expressed as:
Question: How much of

v1 is due to source A,
and how much is
because of source B?
We use the
superposition principle
to answer.

The Superposition Concept
If we define A as
then
Superposition:
the response is the sum
of experiments A and B.
Experiment B Experiment A
The Superposition Theorem
In a linear network, the voltage across or the current through
any element may be calculated by adding algebraically all the
individual voltages or currents caused by the separate
independent sources acting “alone”, i.e. with
–all other independent voltage sources replaced by short
circuits and
–all other independent current sources replaced by open
circuits.
Superposition theorem procedure
• Leave one source ON and turn all other sources
OFF:
– voltage sources: set v=0.
These become short circuits.
– current sources: set i=0.
These become open circuits.
Find the response from this source.
• Add the resulting responses
to find the total response.
Superposition Example (part 1 of 4)
Use superposition to solve for the current ix

First, turn the current source off:

Then, turn the voltage source off:

Finally, combine the results:

Example: Power Ratings
Determine the maximum positive current to which
the source Ix can be set before any resistor
exceeds its power rating.
Answer: Ix<42.49 mA
Source Transformation and Equivalent Sources
The sources are equivalent if
Rs=Rp and vs=isRs

Source Transformation
• The circuits (a) and (b) are

equivalent at the terminals.
• If given circuit (a), but circuit
(b) is more convenient, switch
them!
• This process is called
source transformation.

Example: Source Transformation
We can find the current I in the circuit below using source
transformation, as shown.
I = (45-3)/(5+4.7+3) = 3.307 mA

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuits
Thevenin’s theorem: a linear network can be replaced by its Thévenin
equivalent circuit, as shown below:

Thévenin Equivalent using Source Transformation
• We can repeatedly apply
source transformation
on network A to find its
Thévenin equivalent
circuit.
• This method has
limitations- not all
circuits can be source
transformed.

Finding the Thévenin Equivalent
• Disconnect the load.

• Find the open circuit voltage voc
• Find the equivalent resistance Req of the network with all independent
sources turned off.
Then:
VTH=voc and
RTH=Req
Thévenin Example

Norton Equivalent Circuits
Norton’s theorem: a linear network can be replaced by its Norton
equivalent circuit, as shown below:

Finding the Norton Equivalent
• Replace the load with a short circuit.

• Find the short circuit current isc
• Find the equivalent resistance Req of the network
with all independent sources turned off.
Then:
IN=isc and RN=Req

Source Transformation: Norton and Thévenin
• The Thévenin and Norton equivalents are source transformations of
each other!
RTH=RN =Req and vTH=iNReq

Example: Norton and Thévenin
Find the Thévenin and Norton equivalents for the network

faced by the 1-kΩ resistor.
Answer: next slide
the
load
resistor
this is the circuit we will simplify

Example: Norton and Thévenin
Thévenin Norton
Source
Transformation

Maximum Power Transfer theorem
What load resistor will allow the practical source to deliver the maximum
power to the load?
Answer: RL=Rs
[Solve dpL/dRL=0.]
[Or: pL=i(vs-iRs), set dpL/di=0 to find imax=vs/2Rs. Hence RL=Rs]


Steps to be followed in Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
1. Remove the variable load resistor RL.
2. Find the open circuit voltage VTh across points A and B.
3. Find the resistance RTh as seen from points A and B.
4. Find the resistance RL for maximum power transfer.




Δ-Y (delta-wye) Conversion
The following resistors form a Δ:
The following resistors form a Y:

TOTAL FORECAST
Knowing the means and variances of NWS and WS components,

Assignment 1: due date 17-05-2021
• 1: Sohitha:-30-37
• 4: Pradayak :-36-40
• 5: Srinivas :-63-68

Δ-Y (delta-wye) Conversion
this Δ is equivalent to the Y if this Y is equivalent to the Δ if

Example: Δ-Y Conversion
• How do we find the equivalent resistance of the following network?
Convert a Δ to a Y

use the Δ to Y
equations
use standard serial and parallel

combinations





THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
Consider the following:
A
Network • Network
1 B 2
•
Figure 10.1: Coupled networks.
For purposes of discussion, at this point, we consider

that both networks are composed of resistors and
independent voltage and current sources

THEVENIN & NORTON
Suppose Network 2 is detached from Network 1 and
we focus temporarily only on Network 1.
Network •A
1
•B
Figure 10.2: Network 1, open-circuited.
Network 1 can be as complicated in structure as one
can imagine. Maybe 45 meshes, 387 resistors, 91
voltage sources and 39 current sources.

THEVENIN & NORTON
Network •A
1
•B
Now place a voltmeter across terminals A-B and
read the voltage. We call this the open-circuit voltage.
No matter how complicated Network 1 is, we read one

voltage. It is either positive at A, (with respect to B)
or negative at A.
We call this voltage Vos and we also call it VTHEVENIN = VTH

THEVENIN & NORTON
• We now deactivate all sources of Network 1.

• To deactivate a voltage source, we remove
the source and replace it with a short circuit.
• To deactivate a current source, we remove

the source.
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162
THEVENIN & NORTON
Consider the following circuit.
Figure 10.3: A typical circuit with independent sources
How do we deactivate the sources of this circuit?

5 Dept of EECE, GIT , GITAM deemed to be University
THEVENIN & NORTON
When the sources are deactivated the circuit appears
as in Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4: Circuit of Figure 10.3 with sources deactivated
Now place an ohmmeter across A-B and read the resistance.

If R1= R2 = R4= 20  and R3=10  then the meter reads 10 .

Thursday, May 4, 2023 6 19EEE131 : Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
164
THEVENIN & NORTON
We call the ohmmeter reading, under these conditions,
RTHEVENIN and shorten this to RTH. Therefore, the
important results are that we can replace Network 1
with the following network.
Figure 10.5: The Thevenin equivalent structure.

165
THEVENIN & NORTON
We can now tie (reconnect) Network 2 back to
terminals A-B.
Figure 10.6: System of Figure 10.1 with Network 1

replaced by the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
We can now make any calculations we desire within

Network 2 and they will give the same results as if we
still had Network 1 connected.

166
THEVENIN & NORTON
It follows that we could also replace Network 2 with a
Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance. The results
would be as shown in Figure 10.7.
Figure 10.7: The network system of Figure 10.1

replaced by Thevenin voltages and resistances.
167
THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.1.
Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B.
Figure 10.8: Circuit for Example 10.1.
First remove everything to the right of A-B.

THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.1. continued
Figure 10.9: Circuit for finding VTH for Example 10.1.
Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4  resistor

(A-B) is open. Thus there can be no voltage across the
resistor.

169
THEVENIN & NORTON
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find
the resistance seen looking in these terminals.
RTH
Figure 10.10: Circuit for find RTH for Example 10.10.
We see,
RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 

THEVENIN & NORTON
After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this
to the load in order to find VX.
Figure 10.11: Circuit of Ex 10.1 after connecting Thevenin

circuit.

THEVENIN & NORTON
In some cases it may become tedious to find RTH by reducing
the resistive network with the sources deactivated. Consider
the following:
Figure 10.12: A Thevenin circuit with the output shorted.
We see;
Eq 10.1

THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.2.
For the circuit in Figure 10.13, find RTH by using Eq 10.1.
Figure 10.13: Given circuit with load shorted
The task now is to find ISS. One way to do this is to replace

the circuit to the left of C-D with a Thevenin voltage and
Thevenin resistance.

173
THEVENIN & NORTON
Applying Thevenin’s theorem to the left of terminals C-D
and reconnecting to the load gives,
Figure 10.14: Thevenin reduction for Example 10.2.

THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.3
For the circuit below, find VAB by first finding the Thevenin
circuit to the left of terminals A-B.
We first find VTH with the 17  resistor removed.

Next we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B
with the sources deactivated.

175
THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 10.3 continued
Figure 10.16: Circuit for finding VOC for Example 10.3.

THEVENIN & NORTON
Figure 10.17: Circuit for find RTH for Example 10.3.

THEVENIN & NORTON
Figure 10.18: Thevenin reduced circuit for Example 10.3.
We can easily find that,

THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM:
Assume that the network enclosed below is composed
of independent sources and resistors.
Network
Norton’s Theorem states that this network can be

replaced by a current source shunted by a resistance R.

THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM:
In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit
current of the network, that is, the current obtained by
shorting the output of the network. The resistance is the
resistance seen looking into the network with all sources
deactivated. This is the same as RTH.

THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM:
We recall the following from source transformations.
In view of the above, if we have the Thevenin equivalent

circuit of a network, we can obtain the Norton equivalent
by using source transformation.
However, this is not how we normally go about finding

the Norton equivalent circuit.
181
THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 10.6.
Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B
for the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent
circuit to the load and find the current in the 50  resistor.

THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 10.6. continued
Figure 10.31: Circuit for find I NORTON.
It can be shown by standard circuit analysis that

THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 10.6. continued
It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources,
We find the resistance looking into terminals A-B is
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit.
The Norton equivalent circuit tied to the load is shown below.
Figure 10.32: Final circuit for Example 10.6.

References
[1] D.P.Kothari, I.J.Nagarath, Basic Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, McGraw Hill Education
(India) private Limited, 2017 Video Box Position
[2] B.L.Theraja, Fundamentals of Electrical

Engineering and Electronics, S.Chand Publishing,
New Delhi, 2006.
[3] S.K.Bhattacharya, Basic Electrical and

Electronics Engineering, Pearson Education, 2011.


BEEE Module 1 Circuits

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BEEE Module 1 Circuits

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Topic for the class: BASIC LAWS AND THEOREMS

Module 1 : BASIC LAWS AND THEOREMS

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For Entire For Module II and III For Module I only

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• At the end of this lecture/ session, Students will be able

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FACTOR NAME SYMBOL

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Symbol: Q or q. units are coulomb (C)

the smallest charge, the electronic charge, is carried by an electron

in most circuits, the charges in motion are electrons

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Current is the rate of charge flow:

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• Current (designated by I or i) is the rate of flow of charge

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• When 1 J of work is required to

• Example: (a)=(b), (c)=(d)

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The power required to push a

When power is positive, the

When power is negative, the

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How much power is absorbed by the three elements above?

• A circuit element usually has two terminals

• The relationship between the voltage v across

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In this example, the

This is the graph for a

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Positive power means the device is absorbing energy.

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The resistance of a wire is determined by the resistivity

[In most cases, the resistance of wires can be assumed to be 0 ohms.]

• A resistor R has conductance G=1/R.

• The i-v equation (i.e. Ohm’s law) can be written as

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• A short circuit between A and B means v=0.

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Which can be touched

Passive Circuit elements

Circuit Elements Distibuted through out

Active Circuit Elements Thyristors, Transistors Capacitor

Lumped circuit Property

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Resistance Resistance restricts the flow of electric

The Unit of resistance (R) being Ohm Ω

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Inductance A pure inductor doesnot dissipate energy but

The Unit of inductance (L) being ‘henry’ given by

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