Introduction to immunology

Sept 2022 class-KRCHN Basic

 Outline
 Definition

 Antigens and immunogens

 Forms of body defence against diseases

 Properties of the immune system

 Divisions of immunity

 Components of the immune system

 Vaccination

 Hypersensitivity reactions (immunopathology)

7.1 Definition
Defn; Immunology is the scientific study of immune
responses. The word immune is derived from a latin
word immunis meaning excempted e.g. exempted or
protected from diseases such as measles, smallpox,
chickenpox etc.
 Immunity is a state of freedom from infection

 Immunity is a very highly intricate and sophisticated

system but highly effective in disease prevention.
 Edward Jenner
(1749-1823)
&
The Discovery of
Vaccination (1796)

“Vaccinia (cowpox)”
&
“human smallpox”
Antigens and Immunogens
An antigen is any foreign substance introduced into the
body system

An allergen is an antigen with the potential to evoke

an immune response; “ All allergens are antigens but
not all antigens are allergens”

An immunogen is a substance that is able to stimulate

an immune response on its own e.g bacteria. A
substance that cant stimulate the immune system on
its own is called a hapten.
7.2 The lines of body defence against disease
Mechanical barriers e.g skin, mucous membranes,
hair covering , tears and saliva. Saliva is slightly acidic
and bactericidal to prevent organisms entry into
tissues.
Non-specific cellular and biochemical reactions;
this mainly comprises of inflammatory and
phagocytic responses against damaged tissues and
pathogens invading the body.
Immune responses; This is the 3rd line of defence
which is aided by humoral antibodies that are found
in serum , lymph etc. The term humoral refers to
“fluids” i.e the defence mechanisms found in body
fluids.
7.3 Properties of the immune system

Power to recognise the enemy

Power to fight specifically

Power to control other cells

Power to keep memory

7.4 Divisions of the immune system
There are two major divisions of the immune system,
I. Innate (natural or inborn or non-specific)
immunity; the form of immunity that is not
conferred by antibodies. Is a form of immunity
where disease resistance results from natural and
non-specific factors.
• It varies with individuals, species and race
• Is non-specific for it responds to and tackles a wide
range of organisms
II. Specific/Adaptive immunity; A form of immunity
that results from production or transfer of antibodies
to protect a person against infection.
7.5 Innate/non-specific immunity
Is present at birth thus innate immunity. It is contributed by ,
 Genetic factors e.g. a dog is resistant to malaria
 Physical factors e.g. skin, hair, mucous membranes etc
 Chemical factors e.g. mucous, enzymes such as lysozyme in
saliva, gastric acid , interferons (proteins effective against
viruses) and Acute Phase Proteins of the compliment system
( APPs). Interferons also cause regression of cancer cells.
 Cellular factors e.g. phagocytes, polymorphs, platelets and
Natural Killer (NK) cells that help to kill cells like cancer
cells. NK-cells are forms of leukocytes that are able to
recognise cells that change characteristics of their surfaces.
 7.6 Specific/Adaptive/Acquired immunity
-1970: WHO defined immunity as immune response to antigen
( Foreign body) in form of,
 Humoral immunity (results from activation of B-lymphocytes)
 Cellular immunity ( results from activation of T-lymphocytes)
• Specific immunity may be acquired either actively or passively
• Actively acquired immunity is developed when antibodies
are produced by the lymphocytes of the protected person. This
can happen naturally or artificially
• Passively acquired immunity refers to cases where
antibodies are transferred directly from one person to another
to provide protection from disease. This can happen either
naturally or artificially.
7.7 Actively acquired immunity
Is either naturally or artificially acquired

Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when one develops

resistance to re-infection once attacked by a disease as in the
case of mumps, diphtheria, whooping cough, Typhoid fever,
poliomyelitis and gonorrhoea.

Artificially acquired active immunity occurs when a person

receives a vaccine containing a specfic antigen (Ag) against
which the body produces antibodies. Vaccines contain either
living organisms, attenuated/weakened proteins or toxins .
This applies for measles, yellow fever, polio,BCG and
rabies vaccines .
7.8 Passively acquired immunity
Antibodies directly transferred from one person to another
Because the person receiving didn’t produce the antobodies
naturally by himself, such immunity is temporary. It may last 3-6
weeks
Such immunity is naturally acquired where immunoglobulins
(antibodies) cross from a mothers’ blood stream across the
placenta to the foetus e.g. IgG. Same with transfer of antibodies
(ab) through colostrum .
Such immunity is artificially acquired when antibodies are
transferred to as a susceptible person from the one who is
immune. E.g. inoculation of tetanus and rabies patients with
Rabies immunoglobulins (Rig) or administering Tetanus
immunoglobulins (TIG) to reduce disease severity in the infected
person.
7.9 Components of the immune system
a) Leukocytes (in blood)
b) Lymphoid tissue
 Red bone marrow
 Thymus gland
 Spleen
 Lymph nodes (adenoids)
 Liver (in children)
 Mucosa of small intestines
c) Mast cells and macrophages
d) Antibodies
e) Skin
Dendritic cell
(sentinel)
7.91 Leukocytes
Are the largest blood cells
Are formed in the redbone marrow
Neutrophils are phagocytic with amoeboid
movement . They get attracted to sites of infection &
inflammation by chemotaxins (chemical substances)
Basophils and eosinophils elevation associated with
allergic reactions and worms infestation
Basophils found in body tissues are called mast cells
which are responsible for allergic reactions.
Monocytes are also phagocytic. When they migrate to
the liver they are referred to as macrophages.
Leucocytes cont………
Lymphocytes are responsible for antibodies formation
Lymphocytes acquire their immunity conferring characteristics
either in the thymus or bone marrow.
Lympocytes that get activated in the thymus are called T-
lymphocytes
Lympocytes that get activated in the Bone marrow and other
tissues are called B-lymphocytes
After activation, lymphocytes enter blood and others settle in the
spleen or lymph nodes.
T-lymphocytes are further classified to T-helper (TH) cells, T-
cytotoxic (CTL) cells and T-suppressor (TSL) lymphocytes.
TH have CD4 markers on their surface & their molecule have a
configuration that fits the HIV virus
7.92 How lymphocytes respond to Antigens

When a T-lymphocyte encounters an Ag for the first

time it divides to an effector cell and a memory cell

The effector cell destroys the Ag in conjunction with

other phagocytes.

The memory cell confers cell mediated immunity to

future infections with the same antigen encountered
the first time.
Our immune systems generate an almost
infinite variety of cells and substances
Foreign Recognition

Effector Response Memory

To eliminate or neutralize Upon 2° exposure

particle produces enhanced
response

*In some cases, the IR fails to function; at other times, the IR can turn on its
host
How lymphocytes respond cont……
When B-lymphocytes encounter an antigen they divide
into a plasma cell and a memory cell.

The plasma cell produces antibodies

(immunoglobulins) to neutralize toxins and promote
phagocytosis of the foreign materials.

The memory cell confers humoral immunity i.e

production of antibodies. Humoral immunity is
mediated by antibodies, immunoglobulins and other
elements found in body fluids.
Immunoglobulins (Ig)

An immunoglobulin is a protein of animal origin with known antibody

activity

Immunoglobulins are synthesised by B-lymphocytes and plasma cells

Immunoglobulins are found in body fluids & tissues

Immunoglobulins are produced on stimulation of plasma cells

Immunoglobulins have the capacity to kill a live antigen, neutralise

toxins or even precipitate/agglutinate foreign substances.

Assign; read on functions of the following
immunoglobulins

Ig G

Ig A

Ig M

Ig D

Ig E
 Vaccination
A process of induction of immunity to a pathogen by
deliberate injection of a weaken, modified or related form of
the pathogen which is no longer pathogenic.

Vaccination protects us from infection by

inducing the adaptive immune response, but
bypassing the need for a primary infection
Other historic events & important findings:
L. Pasteur (1880s)
Vaccines against cholera, and rabies
R. Kock (late 19th century)
Infections caused by microorganisms
P. Ehrlich et al. (1890s)
Serum factors transfer of immunity
Behring & Kitasato (1890s)
Antibodies in serum bound to pathogens
Porter & Edelman (1960s)
Antibody structure
J. Gowans (1960s)
Immunological importance of lymphocytes
7.93 Hypersensitivity reactions
The term hypersensitivity is used when an adaptive immune
response occurs in an exaggerated or inappropriate form
causing tissue damage (allergy)

Is a situation where the immune system overreacts causing

tissue damage. The degree of hypersensitivity reaction
depends on,
 Amount of allergen the host is exposed to
 Nature of the allergen
 Route of entry
 Sensitivity of the host to the allergen
 The site of the immune reaction e.g in blood stream or muscle tissue
 Timing of the exposure i.e if contact intervals are frequent or wide apart
Types of hypersensitivity reactions

I. Hypersensitivity type I i.e. immediate and anaphylactic

reactions mediated by IgE e.g. reaction to penicillin injection
II. Hypersensitivity type II where Antigen and Ig reactions occur
on surfaces of cells causing lysis e.g. mismatched blood
transfusion reactions
III. Hypersensitivity type III which involves formation of Ag-ab
complexes that get deposited on organ or tissue surfaces causing
damage e.g. Rheumatic heart disease.
IV. Hypersensitivity type IV(delayed cell mediated reactions); no
antibodies are produced here. Antigens invade tissues of a non-
sensitised host & establish residence. In the course of time
antigenic material is shed triggering cell mediated response e.g
reaction to metals and mycobacterium TB.
V. Hypersensitivity type V ; Immune system attacking the host
cells it is supposed tp protect egg myasthenia gravis , pernicious
anaemia etc
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