College of Agriculture and Natural Resource

Department of Animal Science

Course title: Research Methods in animal Sciences

Course code :AnSc 1627
1
1. Introduction to the Concept of Research Methods
1.1. Research characteristics
1.2. Importance of research (what makes people do research)
1.3. Research types
1.3.1. Basic Vs. applied research
1.3.2. Descriptive, correlational, explanatory and exploratory
1.3.3. Qualitative Vs. quantitative research
1.3.4. Experimental Vs. non-experimental research
1.5. Types of research variables
1.5.1. Control
1.5.2. Dependent
1.5.3. Independent
2. Research Components
2.1. Divisions/layout of research components
2.1.1. Preliminary component
2.1.2. Body component
2.1.3. Supplementary component
2.2. Research proposal
2.2.1. Topic/title
2.2.2. Introduction and background
2.2.3. Review of literature
2.2.4. Materials and methods
2.2.5. Expected research results (output, outcome, and impact)
2.2.6. Work plan
2.2.7. Logistics and sources of finding
2.2.8. Reference citations and its styles
2.2.9. Appendices
2.3. Research report writing
2.3.1. Characteristics
2.3.2. Types of research report (informational, analytical and persuasive)
2.3.3. Components and their features
3. Differentiation of Different Research Papers
3.1. Published Vs unpublished research paper
3.2. Thesis Vs dissertation paper
4. Critical Analysis of Research Papers
4.1. Steps for writing a critical analysis of a research paper
4.2. Structures of a critical paper Analysis
Assessment:
• Continuous assessment: 20%
• Proposal writing assignments and assessment: 30%
• Critical analysis of research papers: 10%
• Final examination: 40%
 1. Introduction to the Concept of Research Methods

 Man has all along tried to look back at his history for better understanding of evolutionary
process leading to the present stage of mankind and have always sought to enlarge their
understanding of themselves and the world around them with the purpose of improving their
way of life.

 The search for knowledge has been motivated by man’s desire to understand and control his
environment.

 Thus, the concept of research is closely linked with human endeavor for better understanding
of his evolution, environment and growth through diverse stages of human history.

 Research is a quest for knowledge through diligent search or investigation or

experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of new knowledge.

 Research, therefore, as been an integral part of academic pursuits in the past.

 Concepts of Scientific research
• Concepts of scientific research are mental images or perceptions and their meanings vary
from individual to individual.

• But from its dictionary meaning it is stated as „an understanding retained in the mind from
experience, reasoning and imagination of a particular set of instances or occurrences.

• Research conducted for the purpose of contributing towards science by the systematic
collection, interpretation and evaluation of data and that tool, in a planned manner is
called scientific research.

• So, scientific research is the systematic investigation of scientific theories and hypotheses.

• Scientific method is a systematic body of procedures and techniques applied in carrying out
investigation or experimentation targeted at obtaining new knowledge.
 Scientific research operates at two levels:
 Theoretical level and
 Empirical level.
 The theoretical level is concerned with developing abstract concepts about a natural or
social phenomenon and relationships between those concepts (i.e., build “theories”),

 while the empirical level is concerned with testing the theoretical concepts and
relationships to see how well they reflect our observations of reality, with the goal of
ultimately building better theories. Over time, a theory becomes more and more refined
(i.e., fits the observed reality better), and the science gains maturity.
 Research and Scientific Method
 These two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.

 Research, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur.

 On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods, although they may
vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific
method.
 The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as
under:
a. It relies on empirical evidence;
b. It utilizes relevant concepts;
c. It is committed to only objective considerations;
d. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only
adequate and correct statements about population objects;
e. It results into probabilistic predictions;
f. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use
in testing the conclusions through replication.
 Accordingly, scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a
method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities
of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by
the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly
manner and a method that implies internal consistency.
 

Knowledge and its sources

 Knowledge can be defined as the facts, idea, opinion, information, understanding and
skills that a person has acquired through experience and education.
 New facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things increased its quantum with the
passage of time. This knowledge enables us to understand, compare, explain, control,
predict or cope with a given situation.
 Methods of acquiring knowledge
 The methods by which man from the earlier times sought answers to his problems can
be classified under the following categories:
1. Authority
2. Tradition
3. Personal experience
4. Deductive reasoning
5. Inductive reasoning
6. Scientific methods
 1. Authority
• Seeking advice from an authority is a well-established method of solving problems.
• Authority may be the persons who have had long experience with that problem and who
have studied and thought about it.
• When factual evidenced cannot be obtained to solve a problem, one may have to rely
upon authoritative opinion temporarily as the only possible method for solution.
• Like traditions, authority can both assist and hider human inquiry.
• Researchers should therefore, be very cautious in obtaining and information from
authority.
 2. Tradition
• Man unconsciously or unquestionably accepts many traditions of his culture.
• Culture constitutes the man-made part of the environment which includes all the elements
that humans have acquired from their group by conscious learning or by conditioning.
• Tradition has both advantage and disadvantage for human enquiry.
• The tradition is the search from regularities and understanding.
• Knowledge is cumulative and an intermitted body of generalized understanding is a point
of departure for the development of more knowledge.
 3. Personal Experience
• Personal experience is a useful and common method of acquiring knowledge.
• However, an uncritical use of personal experiences may lead to incorrect observation
• . A person may make errors when observing or when reporting what he has seen or
observes. Therefore he/she;
 Omit evidence that does not agree with his opinion
 Use measuring instruments that require subjective estimates &
 Fail to observe significant factor relating to a specific situation
• In light of these remarks, one should cautiously and critically use experience as an
avenue for obtaining reliable knowledge.
• Because drawing improper conclusion or inferences owing to personal bias.
 4. Reasoning
Deductive reasoning
• Deduction is the process of deriving specific expectations from general principles. It is the
first systematic approach to reasoning.
• It is a syllogistic reasoning developed by Aristotle and helps to establish a logical
relationship between what is called a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion.
• A major premise is a self evident assumption previously established as a truth concerning
a relationship.
• If the major and minor premises are true, the conclusion arrived at is necessarily true.
• A minor premise is a particular case related to the major premise.
• Thus, the two premises furnished the evidence or grounds for the conclusion.
 Ex: Major premise = all mammals are mortal
Minor premise = all men are mammals
Conclusion = all men are mortal
• Deductive reasoning has limitations in that the premises may not be accurate or true.
• The method of syllogism or deduction has the following limitation:
i. The conclusion of a syllogism is always derived from the context of premise.
ii. It depend up on verbal syllogism
iii. It cannot be relied upon as a self-sufficient method of securing reliable
knowledge.
 Inductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning is the process of establishing general principles from specific
observations.
• In short, inductive reasoning has been developed to complement deductive reasoning as a
means of determining the accuracy or truth of the premises in deductive reasoning.
• In inductive reasoning, an investigator initiates his/her inquiry by observing particular
events or cases (correct facts).
• From his/her examination and analysis of their facts, he/she establishes a general
conclusion about the whole class to which these particular cases belong.
• Thus, if an investigator arrives at general conclusion through induction, he/she may use
them as major premises for deductive reasoning.
 5. Scientific Methods
• Practice of the scientific method, and thereby science, is built on a foundation of trust.
• Society trusts that research results reflect an honest attempt by scientist to describe the
world accurately and without bias.
• Science is inherently a social enterprise, and with few exceptions, scientific research
cannot be done without drawing upon the work of others or collaborating with others.
• Science inevitably takes place within a broad social and historical context, which gives
substance, direction, and ultimately meaning to the work of individual scientists.
 1.1. Research characteristics

A well-organized research must possess certain characteristics features, which are as follows:

1. Solution Oriented: The problem of research must be clearly defined and stated. The
motive of research must be mentioned in the beginning of research work.

2. Logical: In a research we find out facts about a phenomenon and draw conclusions
about it. The inferences and generalizations thus made must be logical.

• For example, all illiterate people in the village live longer than the educated people in
the cities leads to the conclusions that illiteracy is the cause of longevity. This is an
example of illogical research conclusion.
3. Objective: Observing true picture of a phenomenon without being affected by observers
own opinion is termed as ‘objective’. Objectivity means knowing reality.

4. Impartiality: A dishonest research may select data items of individuals to draw

conclusions to his favor. This brings bias into research, which affects the objective of the
study. Therefore, a true research must be impartial and unbiased.

5. Accuracy: A research worker needs to gain some expertise in the study he is

undertaking. This expertise results in achieving the accuracy in the solution drawn. The
accuracy of conclusions is a sensitive issue as it may affect the whole decision-making.
6. Systematic: In a research there should be well-defined steps. Each step should be
sequentially linked with another, so that, the whole research work is an organized structure.

7. Verifiability: the results of a research are subjective to verifications. For building a sound
basis for decision making one verifies the research results by replicating the study.

8. Empirical: A research is an empirical process and involves data collection. The results are
based on observed experience or empirical evidence. Research rejects assumptions and dogma
as methods of established knowledge. It accepts only what is verified by empirical
observations
1.2. Importance of research (what makes people do research)
• What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

• However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies.
• Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions,
curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people
1.3. Research types
 1.3. Research types
1.3.1. Basic Vs. applied research
Research can either be applied (action) research or fundamental (basic or pure) research.
A. Basic research:
• Basic research is defined as that type of research activity pursued with the aim of
discovering or creating new knowledge regardless of its immediate application.

• The primary purpose of the researcher and the institution that employs him is to advance
the frontiers of knowledge through the development of theories from broad
generalizations or principles.

• It has little concern for immediate application of findings to actual problems.

• It is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

• “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
 B. Applied Research:
• The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
• It is any research activity directed towards the generation of knowledge with the aim of
solving predetermined problems.
• It is generally concerned with the adaptation, conversion and/or processing of
knowledge from basic or fundamental research to develop useful innovation or
technology.
• In other words, applied research adapts the theories developed through fundamental
research to the solution of practical problems.
• Applied research is more important than basic research in contributing to
development and the immediate welfare of the people.
 1.3.2. Descriptive, correlational, explanatory and exploratory

Descriptive research
• Descriptive research is conducted to precisely measure and report the characteristics of
some population or phenomenon under study.

• The researcher observes and then he describes what he has observed.

• A descriptive study describes and interprets what is? It involves description, recording,
analyzing, and interpretation of conditions that exist.

• A descriptive research contributes to science primarily by building a foundation of facts

upon which hypotheses may be tested.
• The serious limitation of descriptive research is that it cannot describe cause and effect
relationship because the lack of control measures.
• This is the domain of experimental research where control mechanisms are in place to offset
the influence of other extraneous factors.
• The following points characterize descriptive research:
 They are non-experimental, for they deal with the relationships between non-manipulated
variables in a natural rather than artificial setting.
 They involve hypothesis formulation and testing.
 They use the logical methods of inductive-deductive reasoning to arrive at a
generalization
 They often employ methods of randomization so that error may be estimated when
inferring population characteristics from observations of samples.
 The variables and procedures are described as accurately and completely as possible so
that the study can be replicated by other researchers.
 Kinds of descriptive research

i) Formal Surveys
• By definition a formal survey is a questionnaire - based survey of a sample of respondents
who are representative of a particular population.
• The sample should be sufficiently large to allow valid statistical inferences to be drawn.

• They have the advantage of providing quantifiable data which can be subjected to
statistical inference.

• The main objective of a formal survey is to portray accurately the incidence, distribution
and characteristics of a group or situation.

• It may or may not begin with a specific hypothesis. Formal surveys may involve a single
visit, multiple visit or repeated regular visits.
 ii) Case Studies
• A case study is an empirical enquiry that investigates phenomena within their real - life
context when the factors relevant to these phenomena are not clearly evident.
• A case study examines a unit as a whole.
• The unit may be a person, a family, a social group, or a community.
• It probes deeply and analyzes interactions between the factors that explain present
status.
• Case studies are conducted not to draw broad generalizations but to understand the life
cycles of units and explain their status and factors that influence their behavior, change
or growth.
• It is a detailed study of a single or small number of units selected as representative of a
group or groups relevant to the issue under considerations, but not necessarily
representative of the population as a whole.

• This kind of study is appropriate where a detailed understanding of complicated

relationships is considered more important than ensuring representativeness of the
data.

• such studies are usually conducted at a certain point in time.

• Example: Reduction of the income of farmers in Sidama Zone due to fluctuation of

coffee price in the world market.
 iii) Historical Studies

• History is a meaningful account of human achievements, the relationships between

persons, events, times and places.
• Historians draw their data from observations and experiences of others to understand
the past, and to try to the present and predict the future.
• Since they have not been at the scene of the event, they must use logical inferences to
supplement what is probably an incomplete account.
• Thus, historical research describes what it was?
• The process involves investigation, recording, analyzing and interpreting the events of
the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding
the present, and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future.
 iv) Farming Systems Research (FSR)

• Another class of research that can be discussed in connection with descriptive research
is farming systems research (FSR) that has gained popularity over the last two decades
or so.

• Farming Systems Research (FSR) is an applied problem solving approach to the

generation and, diffusion of technologies, appropriate to farmers’ circumstances.

• It takes account of the objectives of farm households and of different members within
them. FSR tries to understand what farmers do and why.

• It explores/investigates the constraints as well as the opportunities for improvement

of the livelihood of farm families.
• FSR begins with the analysis of whole farming systems and identification of particular
problems or set of problems associated with the farming system. Such analysis is done through
a variety of data collection methods that elicit farmers' priorities and concerns.

• The stages involved in FSR include the following:

 Description and diagnosis, when the main characteristics of the actual farming systems
are analyzed.
 Design relevant strategies based on information from on-station and on-farm experiments,
and from farmers as to their technical economic and social feasibility and acceptability.
 Testing a few promising strategies on-farm.
 Dissemination of accepted strategies to farmers
• FSR may also involve experimental trials to test research recommendations from on station
studies such as rate of fertilizer application, use of improved seeds, etc.
 Correlational research

• A research type where a researcher seeks to understand what kind of relationships

naturally occurring variables have with one another.

• Seeks to explore a relationship or an association or interdependence between two or

more aspects of a situation.

• Example correlation between milk production and health and fertility.

 Explanatory research

• Explanatory research, also known as Causal research is conducted in order to identify the
extent and nature of cause-and-effect relationships.
• Causal research can be conducted in order to assess impacts of specific changes on
existing norms, various processes etc.
• Causal studies focus on an analysis of a situation or a specific problem to explain the
patterns of relationships between variables. 
• Experiments are the most popular primary data collection methods in studies with
causal research design.
 Exploratory research

• Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research
questions and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems.
• This type of research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly
defined yet.
• Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not
intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of
the problem.
• Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive
answers to the research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying
levels of depth.
• It has been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the
basis of more conclusive research.
• It can even help in determining the research design, sampling methodology and data
collection method”.
• Exploratory research “tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous
research has been done.
 1.3.3. Qualitative Vs. quantitative research

a) Qualitative research:
• Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind.
• For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human attitudes,
opinions and behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
• When the characteristic under study concerns a qualitative trait that is only classified in
categories and not numerically measured, the resulting data are called categorical data.
• Color, employment status and blood types are few examples.
 b) Quantitative research:
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable
to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• A few examples of numerically valued variables are height, weight and yield.
• The variables that can only take integers are called discrete variables.
• The name discrete is drawn from the fact that the scale is made up of distinct numbers with
gaps.
• On the other hand, variables that can take any value in an interval are called continuous
variables.
• Discrete quantitative data are numerical responses, which arise from a counting
process, while continuous quantitative data are numerical responses, which arise from
a measuring process.
 Quantitative Qualitative
   

The emphasis of Quantitative research is on Qualitative research is more subjective in

collecting and analysing numerical data; nature than Quantitative research and involves
it concentrates on measuring the scale, range, examining and reflecting on the less tangible
frequency etc. of phenomena. aspects of a research subject, e.g. values,
  attitudes, perceptions.
 
This type of research, although harder to Although this type of research can be easier to
design initially, is usually highly detailed and start, it can be often difficult to interpret and
structured and results can be easily collated and present the findings; the findings can also be
presented statistically. challenged more easily.
 1.3.4. Experimental Vs. Non-experimental research

1.3.4.1. Experimental research

• Experimental research is the type of research that uses a scientific approach towards
manipulating one or more control variables of the research subject(s) and measuring the
effect of this manipulation on the subject.
• It is known for the fact that it allows the manipulation of control variables.
• This research method is widely used in various natural and social science fields, even
though it may be quite difficult to execute.
• Experimental research is usually undertaken when the goal of the research is to trace
cause-and-effect relationships between defined variables.
There are 3 main types of experimental research, namely;

I. pre-experimental
II. quasi-experimental, and
III. true experimental research.

I. Pre-experimental Research
Pre-experimental research is the simplest form of research, and is carried out by observing
a group or groups of dependent variables after the treatment of an independent variable
which is presumed to cause change on the group(s).
II. Quasi-experimental Research
The Quasi type of experimental research is similar to true experimental research, but uses
carefully selected rather than randomized subjects.
III. True Experimental Research
True experimental research is the most accurate type, and may simply be called
experimental research. It manipulates a control group towards a group of randomly selected
subjects and records the effect of this manipulation.
1.3.4.2. Non-Experimental research
• Non-experimental research is the type of research that does not involve the manipulation
of control or independent variable.
• In non-experimental research, researchers measure variables as they naturally occur
without any further manipulation
• This type of research is used when the researcher has no specific research question about a
causal relationship between two different variables, and manipulation of the
independent variable is impossible.
 1.5. Types of research variables

1.5.1. Control variable

• Control variables, also known as controlled variables, are properties that researchers hold
constant for all observations in an experiment.
• While these variables are not the primary focus of the research, keeping their values
consistent helps the study establish the true relationships between the independent and
dependent variables.
• Control variables are different from control groups.
• In science, researchers assess the effects that the independent variables have on the
dependent variable.
• However, other variables can also affect the outcome.
• If the scientists do not control these other variables, they can distort the primary results of
interest.
• In other words, left uncontrolled, those other factors become confounders that can bias the
findings. The uncontrolled variables may be responsible for the changes in the outcomes rather
than your treatment or experimental variables
1.5.2. Dependent variable
• The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment
• A dependent variable is a type of variable whose values are dependent on the values taken by the
other variables and their relationship.
• Generally in relational studies, a variable is influenced/ affected by other related variables.
• In a production function analysis, there exists a functional relationship between the output and
the factors of production.
1.5.3. Independent variable

In any relational analysis, variables which help to predict the dependent variable using the
functional relationship are known as independent variables. In the simplest terms, an
independent variable is the cause, and the dependent variable is the effect.
 CHAPTER 2. RESEARCH COMPONENTS

2.1. Divisions/layout of research components

• Writing, editing, and publishing the paper is the last step in the research process.

• Research paper has three components i.e preliminary, body and supplementary
components.

2.1.1. preliminary component

• Preliminary pages are, the title page; statement of thesis/dissertation approval;

dedication (optional)., acknowledgments, table of contents; lists of abbreviations,
tables, figures, and symbols, and abstract.

• The preliminary pages are double-spaced with lower case Roman numeral page numbers.
Omit the page number on page i, which is the title page.
Title/cover page
• What is this paper called and who wrote it? – the first page of the paper; this includes the
name of the paper, authors, and institutional affiliation of the authors. 
• The title of the research is typed in all capital letters.
• The title should be placed in the same size and style of font as that used for major
headings throughout the manuscript.
• The title should be a concise yet comprehensive description of the contents for
cataloging and data retrieval purposes.
• Initials, abbreviations, acronyms, numerals, formulas, super/subscripts, and symbols
should be not be used in the title.
• The statement “A research paper submitted to Mizan-Tepi university college of
agriculture and natural resource department of animal science in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the bachelor of science degree in animal science(BSc.)” appears
single spaced in the middle of the title page. For doctoral candidates, the phrasing reads “A
dissertation submitted. . . ” 

• The appropriate degree follows the statement. The space between the statement and the
degree should be the same size that is between the author’s name and the statement.

• The word “by” follows the statement “ thesis submitted Mizan-Tepi university……” .

• The full legal name of the author is not typed in all capital letters.
• The date appears on the title page a double space below “The University of Mizan….”
Only the month and year appear, with no punctuation separating them.

• The month indicates the last month in the semester the degree is granted December May
or August. 

• Again, the spaces below the title, the full legal name, the statement, and the degree should
be of equal size. 
 Statement of Thesis/Dissertation Approval

• It signifies that the thesis or dissertation has been approved by the committee chair and a
majority of the members of the committee and by the department chair and the dean
of The Graduate School.

• The dates entered should match the date when you received notification that the
committee member electronically signed the form. 

• The full name of the student, as it appears on the title page, must be used. 
 Dedication

• The dedication is an optional entry; enumeration continues in sequence

• Often only one or two lines, it is centered within the top and bottom margins of the page
and within the thesis margins.

• The word DEDICATION is placed in all capital letters

• It is not labeled “Dedication” and is not listed in the table of contents. 

 Acknowledgements

• Acknowledgments are optional.

• The word ACKNOWLEDGMENTS is placed in all capital letters.

• Following a heading space, the acknowledgments begin.

• In the acknowledgments, students may wish to recognize special assistance from

committee members, friends, or family members who may have helped in the research,
writing, or technical aspects of the thesis or dissertation.

• Individuals employed to prepare the manuscript are not acknowledged. 

 Table of contents

• It provides a detailed and accurate list that uses as a map, guiding through each
respective chapter, including all relevant sections and subsections of material.

• Including a Table of Contents, helps readers understand the general idea of the content. 

• The word TABLE OF CONTENTS is placed in all capital letters.

• It does not list a dedication, nor is the table of contents listed in the table of contents;
these pages are, however, counted.

• The list of figures and list of tables, if used, are included.

 List of abbreviation
• A separate list of abbreviations must be given in the preliminary pages.
• The words “LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS” must appear in capital letters on the first
page of the list centered at the top of the page.
• This is a list sorted in alphabetical order that gives their definitions.
• Very common abbreviations should not be included in your list because they needlessly
overload your list with terms that your readers already know, which discourages them
from using it.
• Some examples of common abbreviations list are USA, PhD, Dr, kg, cm, 0c and etc.
 List of Tables / List of Figures

• Include symbols, tables, figures, illustrations, etc. that appear in the text section only
(do not include those in your appendix/appendices).

• A list of tables, a list of figures, a list of symbols, All lists follow the table of contents.

• The title is on the top edge of the page in all capital letters: LIST OF TABLES/LIST
OF FIGURES.

• List of figures include all graphic representations, e.g. graphs, pie charts, diagrams,
maps, photographs.
 Abstract Page

• The abstract is a concise, carefully composed summary of the contents of the thesis or
dissertation.
• In the abstract, the author defines the problem, describes the research method or
design, and reports the results and conclusions.
• No diagrams, illustrations, subheadings, or citations appear in the abstract.
• The abstract is limited to 350 words. it Includes the title, name of the Author , the degree
name, the university name and year.
• Include a short statement of the problem of the study ; a brief exposition of the methods
and procedures employed in gathering the data; and summarize the
conclusions reached in the thesis or dissertation.
 2.1.2. Body component

• The main part of your research paper is called “the body.”

• To write this important part of the paper, include only relevant information, or
information that gets to the point.

• The body is the largest part of a research paper; in it the researcher collects and
arrange evidence that will persuade the reader of his/her argument.

• It should, therefore, have a logical organization.

• It includes parts from introduction to conclusion and recommendations.

 Introduction
• What is the topic and why is it worth studying? – the first major section of text in the
paper, the Introduction commonly describes the topic under investigation, summarizes
or discusses relevant prior research.
• The introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a
particular field of research.
• It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current
understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the
work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem.
• An introduction should establish the topic with a strong opening that grabs the reader’s
attention before giving an overview of recent research on your chosen topic.
• Avoid going too in-depth in the introduction; deep dives into your topic should be saved
for the body of the paper.
• Background and historical context help explain to the reader why your research is
important.
• As you reach the end of the introduction, you should begin to establish what you want
the reader to know about your topic and research.
• This may include your focus and scope, the problem statement, and your specific
research question(s), hypotheses, or objectives.
 Literature review

• A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic.

• It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant

theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your
paper, thesis, or dissertation topic.

• A literature review is a search, summary and evaluation of the available past and
current literature related to the research problem.

• The literature can include articles, abstracts, reviews, monographs, dissertations,

other research reports, textbooks and electronic media.
 Methods

• What did you do? – a section which details how the research was performed. 
• It typically features a description of the participants/subjects that were involved, the
study design, the materials that were used, and the study procedure. 
• A rule of thumb is that the Methods section should be sufficiently detailed for another
researcher to duplicate your research.
• The method section answers two main questions:
1) How was the data collected or generated?
2) How was it analyzed?
• The writing should be direct and precise and written in the past tense.
 Result

• What did you find? – a section which describes the data that was collected and the
results of any statistical tests that were performed. 

• The results section of the research paper is where you report the findings of your
study based upon the information gathered as a result of the methodology [or
methodologies] you applied.

• The results section should simply state the findings, without bias or interpretation,
and arranged in a logical sequence.

• The results section should always be written in the past tense.

 Discussion

• What is the significance of your results? –The Discussion commonly features a

summary of the results that were obtained in the study, describes how those results
address the topic under investigation and/or the issues that the research was designed
to address, and may expand upon the implications of those findings. 

• Limitations and directions for future research are also commonly addressed.

• The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your
findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being
investigated, and to explain any new understanding or fresh insights about the problem
after you've taken the findings into consideration.
The content of the discussion section most often includes:

Explanation of results: comment on whether or not the results were expected and present
explanations for the results; go into greater depth when explaining findings that were
unexpected or especially profound.

References to previous research: compare your results with the findings from other studies,
or use the studies to support a claim.
This can include re-visiting key sources already cited in your literature review section, or, save
them to cite later in the discussion section if they are more important to compare with your
results than being part of the general research you cited to provide context and background
information.
Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied more generally. For example,
describing lessons learned, proposing recommendations that can help improve a situation, or
recommending best practices.

Hypothesis: a more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results [which may
be proved or disproved in subsequent research].
 Conclusion and recommendation

• Conclusion and recommendations are important in the research process.

• Conclusions interpret the findings of the research.

• It answers the statement of the problem and accepts or rejects the hypothesis.

• Recommendations come after the conclusions, these are the researcher’s opinions
supported by the research findings.

• Usually, recommendations propose a solution, a gap in the research that needs more
investigation, and the next step in research.
 Supplementary components

• Supplementary material Includes reference and appendix, is relevant material, that is

additional to the main article.

Reference

• List of articles and any books cited – an alphabetized list of the sources that are cited in
the paper. 
• Each reference should follow specific guidelines regarding author names, dates, article
titles, journal titles, journal volume numbers, page numbers, book publishers, publisher
locations, websites, and so on.
 Appendix

• Supplementary information (optional) – in some cases, additional information that is

not critical to understand the research paper.

• It contains materials and references that may be very detailed and too big to include in
the actual report such as a

 list of experiment stimuli,

 details of a secondary analysis, or

 programming code, is provided. 

 2.2. Research proposal
Developing research proposal
• A research proposal is a relatively brief document that contains an outline plan for a
research project.
• It is produced at the beginning of the research process in advance of any data collection.
• It describes what will be done, explains how it will be done, and justifies why the
research should be undertaken.
• No-one would seriously consider starting work on a house without first having drawn
up plans for the building. Without such plans it would be virtually impossible to work out
exactly what materials will be required, when they are to be delivered, and how they will
fit together.
The purpose of Research proposals

• A research proposal is a necessary document to convince funding sources that a project is

worthy of their attention and their money!
• It also forces a researcher to organize his efforts with regard to the time and resources
necessary to complete a research project. Good research must carefully be planned and
systematically carried out.
• In short the purpose of the proposal is:
a.) To allow the writer to clarify what it is he/she wants to do, why and how he/she wants to do
it,
b) To persuades the committee that what she/he wants to do can be done in the manner and
timeframe proposed, and
c) To provides written contract between the student/researcher and the committee.
 Structure of a research proposal
A typical research proposal should contain many of the features which features will, or
should be, included may vary from faculty to faculty.
I. A cover page

This is essential – it contains:

o Your research area via tentative or proposed title
o Your name, contact details and qualifications
o An institutional or university name as well as the specific department
o Advisor’s and co-advisor’s names
o The degree level being attempted
 Proposal title
o Should be specific clear and concise and is relevant to intended contents of the
proposal
o It should tell what the proposal is all about
o Usually should not exceed 17 words
o It must include the subject matter (animal, disease, feed etc…) in line of investigation
(breading for disease resistance, evaluation of nutritive value of , selecting for
adaptability,) and location (place of study)
o Usually be typed by using all capital letters
o Abbreviations, formulas, jargon(terminological) and unnecessary words should be
avoided in the title
III Table of contents

A table of contents should:

 list the research proposal sections in a hierarchical way, using titles and subtitles
 list all of the elements of the proposal, with accompanying page numbers.
 these elements generally include the following items: acknowledgements, list of
abbreviations, list of tables, list of figures, introduction, literature review,
methodology, reference list, and appendices.
 Introduction

• Following a general-to-specific writing pattern this part provides background

information that orientates the reader to the research’s general socio-political,
historical, scientific, and educational contexts (whichever is most relevant).

• Perhaps include a theoretical, personal, or policy-based motivation for the research as

a starting point.

• Often it should have the following common sections:

 Background
 Statement of the problem
 Significance of study
 Objectives of the study
Background:
• This explains to the reader the background from which the research problem
emerges and proposes that give rise to the need for undertaking the research activity.
• Review of previous work to reveal what is known of subject (gaps in knowledge and
current trends).
• Virtually every subject has been researched previously, so a critical account of what
has been achieved so far to address the problem is required in order to identify the
gaps in knowledge or contentious issues.
Research problem:
• The research problem provides the focus of the research project.
• It is the end of the background work and the initiator of the specific research tasks.
• It must be very clearly defined to explain the nature of the problem and why it is
significant.
• The purpose is to further increase the understanding of the significance of the
proposed research.
• This section is the most critical task in writing research proposal (i.e., the central point
in any research).
• It the most important section of proposal; because it shows why the researcher has
selected the concerned variables in the expected research and the extent (how far or
deep) to which the research problem is going to be addressed.
Significance of the study: This section addresses the likely contribution of the research
(knowledge, applications, solutions, etc). The researcher describes the value of specific
applications of knowledge to be gained and the potential importance of these applications.
He/she also describes the gaps that the proposed research is intended to fill.

Objectives of the Study: Should specify the measurable outcomes of the research, i.e., end
products.

Objectives must be SMART (S= specific; M=measurable; A= achievable; R=reliable; T=time

bounded).

The objectives must neatly fit into the statement of the problem. Objective emphasizes what
will be done, whereas a method will explain how it will be done
Two types of objectives:

• General objective: provides a short statement of the scientific goal being pursued by the
research.

• Specific objectives are operational in nature.

• Do not confuse objectives with goals.

• The goals are conceptual, ultimate and more abstract.

• Objectives are specific and immediate.

Literature review

• A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited

scholars and researchers.

• It is not necessary to review all the literature in the field particularly if you are dealing with
a specific research topic. What you need are materials that have direct relevance to the
study. It must provide a historical background of the subject to be studied (clear
background).

• It must adequately present any and all relevant materials that are available. In the context
of literature review: it means locating literature in a variety of sources, reading it carefully
and thoroughly, evaluating the content, breaking down and reorganize it into theme
(topics) along the line of investigation.
Purpose of literature review
 To convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic,
and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
To expand the introductory chapter and to address the questions raised
To provide the theoretical basis for the research question
To help the researcher in the interpretation of results or findings.
To help the researcher to outline the implications of his study
 To further define the research problem
 Materials and methods

• This section shows how the research objectives/hypotheses will be answered / tested
in the most rigorous way.
• It describes in detail the specific methods and the materials needed to accomplish the
research. It explains the procedures to be followed.
• It provides clear and complete descriptions for all experimental, analytical, and
statistical procedures.
• The section should include enough information so that another researcher can repeat the
procedures and expect to get similar results.
In writing this section it is very useful to consider questions such as:

Where: Important to describe where the study will explicitly takes place.
How: provide a detailed description of what will occur from the time the project starts until it
ends, i.e., how you will do the research
When: present the methods in a logical sequence of activities in a time frame.
Why: justify the chosen methods, especially if they are new or unique.

The major components are:

Description of the study area
Describing the biophysical environment of the study area is very important.
 Location and topography
 Climate
 Geology and soils
 Production systems and population
Target population

 The population from which the sample will be drawn,

 the method of sampling and

 the rationale for the sampling method should be explained or described in the proposal.
Data collection methods

• The proposal should include a description of the instruments and procedures to be used
for collecting the data including who will collect the data when it will be collected and
how. If observers, interviewers or enumerators are to be used, specify the criteria that will
be used in their selection.

Data analysis procedures

• Data analysis involves the ordering and reduction of the data so that they can be
related directly to the research problem. All statistical procedures to be used in
analyzing the data should be described.
4. Expected output
You need to state the output expected after accomplishing the proposed research. Expected
outcomes commonly developed from specific objectives.
Features of Expected Outcomes
1. An explanation of how the proposal will address the needs shown in the Statement of the
Problem;
2. An explanation of the benefits that will be realized if the proposal is accepted;
3. Clear information about WHO will benefit and HOW they will benefit from the
proposal;
4. Some Expected Outcomes Sections also indicate what might happen if the proposal is
NOT accepted.
5. Expected Outcomes Sections are written in the future tense.
 Work plan
• You need to present timetable/work plan/schedule for each activity to be implemented.
• It shows how you plan to deal with constraints such as time, transport and
accommodation.
• There are three steps in formulation of work plan
 Analysis of tasks
 Time estimates of each tasks
 Synthesis of the plan
6. Budget

• It shows how you are going to organize the research in logistic terms (research equipment,
transport, accommodation, etc) and deal with language problems (use of interpreters).

• The steps in presentation of budget should proceed in the following manner

 Study the sequence of research activities or work plan

 Estimate the cost of each activity
 Group similar expenditure items together
 Present a detailed periodic budget; and
 Present a budget summary covering all years of the project
References
In-text references (citations)
References are citations of other works such as books, journal articles, or private
communications.
There may be different systems of citing references in the text. But the most common one is
writing the author and the year in the text and the full reference is then found in alphabetic
order in the bibliography or reference section.
A. One author
1. When placed at the end of a sentence (more common)
………………….. (Allard, 1999).
2. When placed somewhat in the middle (less preferable)
……… (Allard, 1999)……….
3. When placed towards the beginning of a sentence
Allard (1999) estimated that ………
According to Alard (1999),

B. Two authors
The same as in section „‟A‟‟ except that the two authors are connected with‟‟ and‟.
…………(Ayana and Bekele, 2000).
………... (Ayana and Bekele, 2000)….
Ayana and Bekele (2000)……….
According to Ayana and Bekele (2000),…
C. Three or more authors
If you are referring to literature written by three or more authors, write the name of the first
author followed by et al.
……… (Ayana et al., 2000)
. ……… (Ayana et. al, 2000)…
Ayana et al. (2000) pointed out…
According to Ayana et al. (2000),…..
D. Referring to the same author or group of authors in the same year
Place a, b, etc. immediately after the year, and it does not matter if single, double or
multiple
authors. Placement is also up to you.
Ayana et al. (2000a, 2000b)
E. Referring to many authors at the same time
Arrange them chronologically (i.e., Year ascending) and if of the same year arrange the
authors alphabetically and separate them using semi-colon). Placement is up to you, though
highly preferable to put at the end in this condition.
Example:
……………………….(Gebrekidan, 1987; Kebede, 1991; Debelo et al., 1995; Ayana, 2001).
Reference lists:
• written in an alphabetical or numerical list with complete source of relevant information
about a given subject.
• Any publication or other source that is referred in the text, tables or figure must be listed
in the list of references. Inversely all references in the list shall be referred in the text.
• The reference shall be made in the accepted style of the university
Abbreviating within a reference
Here are approved abbreviations for use in a reference list:
chap. for chapter
ed. for edition
rev. ed. for revised edition
2nd ed. for second edition
Ed. for Edited by
(Eds.) for multiple editors
 Trans. for Translated by
p. for page number, with a space after the period
pp. for page numbers for page numbers in encyclopedia entries, multi-page newspaper
articles, chapters or articles in edited books, but not in journal or magazine article
citations, where numbers alone should be used
Vol. for Volume
vols. for volumes
No. for Number
Pt. for Part
Suppl. for Supplement,
Tech. Rep. for Technical Report
Appendices

An appendix or appendices should always be inserted after your Reference List

 The appendices follow the reference list.

 Put figures and tables in separate appendices. The appendix title serves as the title for a table if it
is the only table in the appendix.

 If you decide that certain figures and tables should appear in the same appendix, number them A1,
A2, A3, and so forth, according to the appendix in which they appear.

 The materials in the appendix must not extend beyond the margins of the rest of the paper:
Reduce the appendix materials as needed.

 As a general guide, appendices are appropriate for any material that, if presented in the main body
of the document, would unnecessarily interrupt the flow of the writing.
Reasons why research proposals fail?
The most common errors of research proposal developing and writing are:

1. Deadline for proposal submission not met.

2. Guidelines for proposal content, outline, and length were not followed exactly.

3. Proposals are not well organized.

4. Proposed research question, research design and/or research methods were completely
traditional.

5. In literature review or background section, the proposal writer showed he/she did not
know the area of his or her subject matter.
6. Proposed project appeared beyond the capacity of the individual or institution to carry out.

7. Method for conducting the research or carrying out the project was not explained or seemed
unsuited to the projects.

8. Budget was too high. Budget was too low.

9. Costs appeared greater than the benefits, or it was unclear who would benefit.

10. Work plans are too vague. They lack specifics on what activities are to be done, why, how,
when, in what sequence, and by whom.
11. Management responsibility and capability are not clearly demonstrated in terms of
planning activities, budgeting funds, providing commodities, keeping records, and writing
reports.

12. The quality of the writing is poor. The proposal is hard to read, uses sweeping
generalizations and jargon, is excessively repetitive, and too long.

13. Proposal contains an unreasonable number of mechanical errors (for example; typos,
pages upside down or out of place) showing an inattention to detail and quality of work.
 2.4. Seminar paper writing
Functions of a Seminar Paper
• A seminar paper is the written analysis of a particular topic specified in the seminar.
• Any research paper is a means of communication between the researcher and the academic
community.
• A seminar paper is also an excellent opportunity to exercise scientific writing before writing
a thesis.
Things to be done Before Starting to Write a Seminar Paper
 Fix a specific topic in accordance with your supervisor.
 Get a first overview of the existing literature (literature review is one of the important parts of
your work for a seminar paper. Generally, this is in your own responsibility, but you may get
hints from your supervisor).
 Specify the structure in accordance with your supervisor
Structure and Elements of a Seminar Paper
Any seminar paper has to include
1. Title page
2. Table of contents (including page numbers),
3. List of tables/figures,
4. Summary
5. Introduction
6. Body of the paper (literature review)
7. Conclusion
8. List of references (at the end of the paper)
 Introduction
• The first section of the seminar paper is the introduction.
• The introductory section should establish the importance of the topic, define a meaningful
research gap, and explain how the present paper attempts to fill the gap.
• The introduction should also explicitly outline the contributions of the paper. An
introduction ends with explaining the organization of the rest of the paper.
The key purpose of the introduction is to motivate the reader to read the rest of the paper.
 Body of the paper (Research)
• In seminar papers, the common approach is to write a literature review.
• For papers focusing on literature review, there are many alternatives for structuring the body
part.
• The topic and the selected approach largely determine the optimal structure.
2.3. Research report writing

• It is a written document prepared by a researcher for sharing ideas, information and

experiences with others.

• A research report is an end product of a project work.

• It contains the description of events, pertinent facts discovered during investigation,

conclusion and recommendation.

• The role of a research report is to disseminate the findings and results of a research
with the readers audiences.

• It is a record that reflects the investigation process or what the researcher did.
 Characteristics of report writing

1. Simplicity: The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is easily

understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided.
2. Clarity: The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is intended to be
expressed. For that the report has to be written in correct form and following correct steps.
3. Brevity: A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the reader is not
lost and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be complete. A
report is not an essay.
4. Positivity: As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of negative ones.
5. Punctuation: Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning
of sentences may be misunder­stood or misrepresented.
6. Readability: The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation and the
diction (use of words) shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he/she is compelled
to read the report from the beginning to the end.
7. Accuracy: A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be biased with
personal feelings of the writer.
8. Logical Sequence: The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by
step. A planning is necessary before a report is prepared.
9. Presentation: A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of
typing or printing as well as quality of paper used.
2.3.2. Types of research report
1. Informational
• As their name suggests, this report type aims to give factual insights about a specific topic.
• This can include performance reports, expense reports, and justification reports, among
others.
• A differentiating characteristic of these reports is their objectivity, they are only meant to
inform but not propose solutions or hypotheses.
• Informational reports present data without analysis or recommendations.
• The writers collect and organize facts, but they are not expected to analyze it for readers.
• These reports require routine operations, observance of regulations, and company policies.
• Common informational reports examples are for performance tracking such as annual,
monthly, or weekly reports. 
 2. Analytical
• Analytical reports provide data, analyses and conclusions.
• Information is often presented in the form of graphs, or statistics.
• Analytical reports are written for different purposes.
• It depends on who needs the data. Analytical reports call on to answer questions, to ask
which product is the best, or is an idea good etc.
• They call for research, interpretation, and recommendation.
• Good analytical reports require critical thinking and the clear communication of ideas.
• Analytical reports provide not only objective answers, but also provide with a view of any
potential problem, or areas that need attention.
• Analytical reports may address two, or more analytical problems.
• This report type contains a mix of useful information to facilitate the decision-making
process through a mix of qualitative and quantitative insights as well as real-time and
historical data.

• Unlike informational reports that purely inform users about a topic, this report type also
aims to provide recommendations about the next steps and help with problem-solving.

• For example, you might write an analytical report on a subject that is a concern in your
community, such as public transportation.

3. Persuasive

• Persuasive writing, also known as the argument essay, uses logic and reason to show that
one idea is more legitimate than another.
• It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a particular
action.
• The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid evidence by stating facts,
giving logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts.
• An extension of analytical reports the main focus is to sell an idea, a service, or
product. it provides information that is meant to convince the reader of something.
• It usually makes some kind of recommendation or pitches an idea.
• Often this type of report is written in the workplace.
• Proposals are a common type of persuasive report.
3. Differentiation of Different Research Papers
3.1. Published Vs unpublished research paper