Fruits and vegetables-

Introduction

Egg plant (Brinjal)

Introduction:
Vegetables are the edible portion of plants eaten with (or as) the
main course. Potatoes are the most widely grown vegetable
for human consumption.

Vegetables and fruits have many similarities with respect to

their compositions, methods of cultivation and harvesting,
storage properties, and processing.

Botanically, fruits are the mature ovaries of plants with their

seeds. In other words, fruits are those portions of plant that
house seeds.

Therefore, as per the above definition, tomatoes,

cucumbers, eggplant, peppers, okra, sweet corn, and other
vegetables would be classified as fruits.
Continued…. 2
Introduction (Continued…):
 However, the main difference between fruits and vegetables is
based on their usage:
--- those plant items that are generally eaten with the main
course of a meal are often considered to be vegetables

--- those that commonly are eaten alone or as a dessert are

considered fruits

 Fruits are high in organic acids and sugar—higher than

vegetables.

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Classification of vegetables
Vegetable classifications demonstrate the parts of the plant eaten
as food. This varies throughout the world.

The eight common parts, beginning with underground parts of

the plant and progressing to those parts growing above
ground, are as follows:

 Roots—underground; beet, carrot, parsnips, radish, rutabaga,

sweet potato, turnip, yam.

 Tubers—underground; enlarged fleshy stem; starch storage

area after leaves manufacture carbohydrates; buds or eyes
form new plants; Irish potato, Jerusalem artichoke

 Bulbs—stems with an underground bulb of food reserve; garlic

bulb, leeks, onions, shallots, spring onions (green onions or
scallions do not possess a real bulb) Continued… 4
Classification of vegetables (Continued…):
 Stems—a plant’s vascular system, nutrient pathway; a lot of
cellulose;asparagus, celery, kohlrabi, rhubarb.

 Leaves—the manufacturing organ for carbohydrate which is

then stored elsewhere in the plant; brussels sprouts, cabbage,
lettuce, parsley, spinach, also sea weeds.

 Flowers—clusters on the stem; artichoke, broccoli,

cauliflower.

 Fruits—the mature ovaries with seeds, generally sweet, and

fleshy; apple, banana, berry, and orange.

 Seeds—in fruit of a plant; may be in pods; includes legumes

such as dried beans, and peas, and peanuts.

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Classification of vegetables (Continued…):

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Composition of fruits and vegetables (Continued..):
The composition of vegetables and fruits depends on:
-- botanical variety
-- cultivation practices
-- weather
-- degree of maturity prior to harvest
-- condition of ripeness, which continues after harvest
-- storage conditions

 Most fresh vegetables and fruits are high in water, low in

protein, and low in fat.

 The water content is generally greater than 70% and

frequently greater than 85%. Exceptions are dates and
raisins, which have lower moisture content, but can’t be
considered fresh in the above sense.
Continued…
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Composition of fruits and vegetables (Continued..):
 Commonly, protein content is not greater than 3.5% and fat
content is not greater than 0.5%.

However, legumes such as peas and certain beans are higher

in protein; a few vegetables such as sweet corn are slightly
higher in fat; and avocados are substantially higher in fat.

 Both, vegetables and fruits are important sources of both

digestible (sugar & starches) and indigestible carbohydrates
(fibre). Fibres are important to normal digestion.

 Fruits and vegetables are important sources of minerals

(calcium, magnesium and iron) and certain vitamins also,
especially vitamins A and C.
Continued…

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Composition of fruits and vegetables (Continued..):

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Composition of fruits and vegetables (Continued..):
Phytochemicals are plant chemicals. They are non-nutrient
materials that may be especially significant in disease
prevention and controlling cancer.

For example:
 beta-carotene of carotenoid pigments, the flavonoid group of
pigments, as well as the sulfur-containing allyl sulfide and
sulforaphane

 dithiolthiones, indoles, and iso-thiocyanates in cruciferous

(“cross-shaped blossom,” cabbage family) vegetables

 Iso-flavones, phytosterols, protease inhibitors, saponins in

legumes

 limonene and the phenols of citrus fruit

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Structural features of fruits and vegetables:
Vegetables and fruits are composed of both simple and complex
cells.

Simple cells
 The simple cells are similar to one another in function and
structure and include dermal tissue and parenchyma tissue.

 Dermal tissue is the single-layer outside surface of leaves,

young stems, roots, and flowers.

 Parenchyma tissue makes up the majority of the plant and is

where basic molecular activity such as the synthesis and
storage of carbohydrate by sunlight (photosynthesis) occurs.

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Structural features of fruits and vegetables (Continued…):
Complex tissue
 It includes the vascular, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma
supporting tissue.

 Major vascular tissue consists of the xylem and phloem;

xylem transports water from the roots to the leaves, and
phloem transport nutrients from the leaves to the roots.
These tissues may be located in the center of the vegetables.

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Structural features of fruits and vegetables (Continued…):

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Structural features of fruits and vegetables (Continued…):
 A plant is made primarily of simple parenchyma tissue. Each
cell is bounded by a cell wall produced internally by the
protoplast.

 The wall serves to support and protect cell contents and their
retention, influx, or release. When the wall is firm, the original
shape and texture of the cell are maintained.

 The primary cell wall is made of cellulose, hemi-cellulose, and

pectic substances including pectin. Older, more mature plants
also may have a secondary cell wall composed of lignin, in
addition to the primary cell wall.

 The protoplast is composed of three parts– plasma

membrane, cytoplasm and organelles.

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Structural features of fruits and vegetables (Continued…):
 The plasma membrane surrounds the functional cell, while the
cytoplasm of the protoplast includes all of the cell contents
inside the membrane yet outside the nucleus.

 The organelles include nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and

plastids. It is the plastids that contain fat soluble material
such as fat-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble pigments
including chlorophyll and carotenoids.

 Outside the cell wall, between adjacent cells, is the middle

lamella. This is the “cementing” material between adjacent
cells and it contains pectic substances, magnesium and
calcium, water, and air spaces.

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Structural features of fruits and vegetables (Continued…):
 Each parenchyma cell contains an inside cavity known as a
vacuole. It may be large in size, holding plentiful water, and
comprising the major portion of parenchyma cells, or it may
be small in size.

In an intact, uncooked cell, vacuoles hold sufficient

water and provide a desirable crisp texture to the cell. The
opposite effect is noted in wilted or cooked cells.

 The cell sap of the vacuole contains the water-soluble

materials including vitamins B and C, sugars, inorganic salts,
organic acids, sulfur compounds, and the water-soluble
pigments.

These cell sap components may escape into the

surrounding soaking/rehydrating/cooking water.
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Turgor and texture:
Plant tissues generally contain more than two-thirds water, thus
the relationship between specific cellular components and
water determine textural differences.

Cell Turgor
 Turgor is the rigidity of plant cells resulting from being filled
with water.

 The state of turgor, which depends on osmotic forces, is the

most important factor determining the texture of fruits and
vegetables.

 The cell walls of plant tissues (living protoplast) are semi-

permeable; that is, they allow passage of water but selectively
transfer dissolved and suspended materials.

Continued… 17
Cell Turgor (Continued…):
 The cell vacuoles contain most of the water of plant cells;
within this water are dissolved sugars, acids, salts, amino
acids, some water-soluble pigments and vitamins, and other
low-molecular-weight constituents.

 In the living plant, water taken up by the roots passes through

the cell walls and membranes into the cytoplasm of the
protoplasts and into the vacuoles to establish a state of
osmotic equilibrium within the cells.

 The osmotic pressure within the cell vacuoles and within the
protoplasts pushes the protoplasts against the cell walls and
causes them to stretch slightly in accordance with their
elastic properties.

Continued…
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Cell Turgor (Continued…):

Turgor pressure in KPa measured with glove 19

Cell Turgor (Continued…):
 These processes result in the characteristic appearance of
live plants and are responsible for the desired plumpness,
succulence, and much of the crispness of harvested live fruits
and vegetables.

 When plant tissues are damaged or killed by storage, freezing,

cooking, or other causes, denaturation of the proteins of the
cell membranes occurs, resulting in the loss of perm-
selectivity.

 Without perm-selectivity, osmotic pressure in cell vacuoles

and protoplasts cannot be maintained, and water and
dissolved substances are free to diffuse out of the cells and
leave the remaining tissue in a soft and wilted condition.

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Pigments/Colour and colour changes:
Plant pigments enhance the aesthetic value of fruits and
vegetables for humans, as well as attract insects and birds,
which fosters pollination.

These pigments are subject to change with ripening and

processing of the raw vegetables or fruits.

The 4 pigments found in plants are:

 Chlorophyll (green pigment)
 Carotenoids (yellow, red or orange pigment)
 Anthocyanin (Red, blue or purple pigment)
 Anthoxanthin (white pigment)

Pigments belonging to anthocyanin and anthoxanthin are also

referred as flavonoids and include the tannins.
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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
a. Chlorophyll
 It plays a primary role in the photosynthetic production of
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water.

 The bright green color of leaves and other plant parts is due
largely to oil-soluble chlorophylls, which in nature are bound
to protein molecules in highly organized complexes.

 When plant cells are killed by ageing, processing, or

cooking, the proteins are denatured and the magnesium
bound in the chlorophyll may be released.

This causes a chemical change of chlorophyll to

pheophytin which is olive green or brown in color.

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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
a. Chlorophyll (Continued…)
Conversion to pheophytin is favored by acid pH and occurs less
readily under alkaline conditions.

For this reason, peas, beans, spinach, and other green

vegetables, which tend to lose their bright green colors on
heating, can be to some extent protected against such color
changes by the addition of sodium bicarbonate or other alkali
to the cooking or canning water.

However, this practice is not favourable nor used

commercially because alkaline pH tends to soften cellulose
and vegetable texture and increases the destruction of
vitamin C and thiamin at cooking temperatures.

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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
b. Carotenoids:
 These are fat soluble and range in color from yellow through
orange to red.

 Important carotenoids include:

---orange carotenes of carrot, corn, apricot, peach, citrus fruits,
and squash;
---red lycopene of tomato, watermelon, and apricot;
---yellow-orange xanthophyll of corn, peach, paprika, and
squash;
---yellow orange crocetin of the spice saffron.

 Some carotenoids serve as precursors to vitamin A.

Continued…
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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
b. Carotenoids (Continued…):
 In food processing, the carotenoids are fairly resistant to heat,
changes in pH, and water leaching since they are fat soluble.

 However, they are very sensitive to oxidation, which results in

both color loss and destruction of vitamin A activity.

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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
c. Anthocyanins:
 Anthocyanin is the red, blue-red, blue, or purple pigment in
fruits and vegetables such as blueberries, cherries,
raspberries, red cabbage, red plums, and rhubarb.

 The skins of radishes, red apples, red potatoes, grapes, and

eggplant also contain anthocyanin pigment.

 It is prevalent in buds and young shoots and is an underlying

pigment of chlorophyll, which becomes apparent as a purplish
pigment in autumn leaves when chlorophyll decomposes.

 They are water soluble and commonly are present in the

juices of fruits and vegetables.

Continued…
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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
c. Anthocyanins (Continued….):
 The water solubility of anthocyanins also results in easy
leaching of these pigments from cut fruits and vegetables
during processing and cooking.

 The colour of anthocyanins depends on the pH. Thus, many of

the anthocyanins that are violet or blue in alkaline media
become red on addition of acid.
The colour of red fruits and vegetables shifts toward
violet and gray-blue if the pH becomes basic.

 Red anthocyanins also tend to become more violet, blue, or

colorless on reaction with metal ions, which is one reason for
lacquering the inside of metal cans when the true color of
anthocyanin-containing fruits and vegetables is to be
preserved.
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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
d. Anthoxanthin:
 Anthoxanthins are white, or pale yellowish, water-soluble
pigments found in a plant’s cell sap.

 Anthxanthins represent flavone, flavonol, flavanone, and

flavanol pigments and includes fruits such as apples, or
vegetables such as cauliflower, onions, and potatoes.

 Short cooking is desired. With prolonged heat, the pigment

turns into a brownish gray color. For example, white,
anthoxanthin potatoes, with their low organic acid content,
may become dark colored after prolonged cooking.

 Some anthoxanthins may change to anthocyanins and exhibit

a pinkish tinge if vegetables are overcooked.
Continued…
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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
d. Anthoxanthin (Continued…):
 In acid environments, anthoxanthin becomes lighter.

 If cooking water is alkaline or contains traces of iron salts the

result may be a yellow or brown discoloration of white cooked
vegetables.

 Cooking in aluminum cookware also causes the same

discoloration.

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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
e. Tannins:
 Tannins (tannic acid) are polyphenolic compounds that add
both color and astringent flavor to foods.

 They may be responsible for the unwanted brown

discoloration of fruits and vegetables, as well as for the
desirable changes that provide tea leaves with their
characteristic color.

 They range in color from pale yellow to light brown, and due
to their acidic nature they tend to cause the mouth to pucker.

 Under most circumstances they are colorless, but on

reaction with metal ions they form a range of dark-colored
complexes which may be red, brown, green, gray, or black.
Continued… 30
Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
e. Tannins (Continued…):
 They are responsible for the dark color found in the bark of
oak, sumac, and myrobalen trees.

 Water-soluble tannins appear in the juices squeezed from

grapes, apples, and other fruits as well as in the brews
extracted from tea and coffee.
The color and clarity of tea are influenced by the
hardness and pH of the brewing water.

 The tannins also are important because they possess

astringency which influences flavor and contributes body to
coffee, tea, wine, apple cider, beer, and other beverages.
 Excessive astringency causes a puckery sensation in the
mouth, which is the condition produced when tea becomes
high in tannins from overbrewing .
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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
f. Betalaines:
They are similar to but not categorized as anthocyanins or
anthoxanthins. These pigments differ in color. For example,

 Betacyanines are red-colored like anthocyanins at a pH of 4–7.

 Betaxanthines are yellow-colored like anthoxanthins at a pH

above 10.

 Betalaine below a pH of 4 is violet-colored.

The primary food plant in which they occur is the red beet. They
also occur in some cactus fruits and flowers.

Continued…
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Pigments/Colour and colour changes (Continued…):
 Betalains are degraded by thermal processing but occur in
such high amounts that sufficient pigment remains for
coloration.

 They are relatively stable compared to other natural red

pigments, especially in the pH range of 4-6.

 They have been considered for use as naturally occurring

food colorants.

 A lacquered can (as with anthocyanins) is used in order to

prevent color changes that may result from metals in the can
reacting with the betalaine pigment.

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Flavour compounds:
The flavour of cooked vegetables is greatly influenced by the
presence of sulphur of both allium and brassica compounds,
although aldehydes, ketones, organic compounds, and
alcohols are contributors to flavor.

a. Allium
 Vegetables that are of the genus allium include chives, garlic,
leeks, onions, and shallots, each different members of the lily
family.

 Onions, for example, contain strong sulphur compounds and

exhibit enzyme activity when cut, causing the eyes to tear
(lachrymatory effect).

Continued…
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Flavour compounds (Continued…):
a. Allium (Continued…):
 Similarly, garlic undergoes an enzymatic change to sulfur
compounds, precursor (+)-S-allyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide,
producing the identifiable garlic odor.

 Since these flavor compounds in plants are water soluble,

they may be lost from the vegetable to the water, then
volatized as steam during cooking.

 In Allium group, flavour is mild if the vegetable is cooked in a

large amount of water, uncovered. A concentrated, stronger
flavor is apparent if less water and covered cooking are
chosen. Intensity is greatest when cooking in oil.

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Flavour compounds (Continued…):
b. Brassica:
 Vegetables of the genus Brassica include broccoli, brussels
sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, kohlrabi, mustard greens,
rutabaga, and turnips.

 They are of the mustard family and are known as cruciferous

vegetables which have a cross shaped blossom on the young,
growing plant.

 As opposed to allium, the naturally mild flavor of the raw

vegetables with brassica becomes quite strong and
objectionable with prolonged cooking as hydrogen sulfide is
produced.

Kohlrabi

Rutabaga 36
Continued…
Flavour compounds (Continued…):
b. Brassica (Continued…):
 In brassica group, small amount of water, and cooking for a
short time, with a cover, prevents development of an
unacceptable strong-flavor.

 Some vegetables of the Brassica genus, such as cabbage,

contain a sulfur compound known as sinigrin.

Sinigrin may interact with an enzyme, myrosinase, released

from the cut or bruised cell and produce potent mustard oil.

The (+)-S-methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide compound may convert

to the more desirable dimethyl disulfide.

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Flavour compounds (Continued…):
c. Organic acids:
 The tart, sour taste of fruits may be attributed to organic
acids, such as citric acid, malic acid, or tartaric acid.

 Vegetables contain a greater variety of organic acids, yet

maintain a less acidic pH level than fruits.

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Status of fresh fruits and vegetables:
 India ranks second in fruit and vegetable production in the
world after China.

 As of 2020-21, India produced 102.48 million metric tonnes of

fruits and 200.45 million metric tonnes of vegetables.

 According to FAO (2021), India is the largest producer of

ginger and okra among vegetables and ranks second in the
production of Potatoes, Onions, Cauliflowers, Brinjal,
Cabbages, etc.

Amongst fruits, India ranks first in the production of

Bananas (26.45%), Mangoes (including mangosteens and
guavas) (43.80%)and Papayas (39.30%).

Mangosteens Continued…
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Status of fresh fruits and vegetables (Continued…):
 During 2021-22, India exported fresh fruits and vegetables
worth Rs. 11,412.50 crores/ 1,527.60 USD Millions which
comprised fruits worth Rs. 5593 crores/ 750.7 USD Millions
and vegetables worth Rs. 5745.54 crores/ 767.01 USD Millions.

 The processed fruits and vegetables including pulses was

exported Rs. 12,858.66 crores/ USD 1,724.88 million which
comprised of processed vegetables including of pulses
Rs.8308.04 Crores/ USD 1114.19 million and processed fruits
and juices Rs.4550.62 crores/ USD 610.69 million in 2021-22.

 Grapes, Pomegranates, Mangoes, Bananas, and Oranges

account for the larger portion of fruits exported from the
country while Onions, Mixed Vegetables, Potatoes, Tomatoes,
and Green Chilly contribute largely to the vegetable export
basket.
Continued…
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Status of fresh fruits and vegetables (Continued…):
 Major destinations for the Indian fresh fruits and vegetables
are Bangladesh, UAE, Nepal, Netherland, Malaysia, Sri Lanka,
the UK, Oman and Qatar.

 Major destinations for the Indian processed fruits and

vegetables are USA, UAE, China, Netherland, UK and Saudi
Arab.

 Though India's share in the global market is nearly 1% only,

the demand is rising because of the developments in the
areas i.e. cold chain infrastructure and quality assurance
measures.

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QUESTIONS

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