MENSCHEN FUR MENSCHEN FOUNDATION

Agro Technical and Technology Collage (ATTC)

Department Of Agro Ecology
Applied Crop Production Stream
Fruit Crop Production and Management
LECTURE NOTES
Credit hour -3- (ECTS -5-)

BY
Getachew Asamenew
 What is Agriculture?

• Agriculture is a branch of biology.

• It is the key component of the rise of human civilization.
• Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the soil,
growing crops and raising livestock.
• It includes the preparation of plant and animal products for
people to use and their distribution to markets.
• Agriculture provides most of the world's food and fabrics.
 What are the branches of Agriculture?
There are 20 major Branches of Agriculture:

• Agronomy • Agriculture • Food Science and

• Horticulture Biotechnology Technology
• Plant Breeding and • Agriculture • Land and Water
Genetics Engineering Management
• Seed Science • Agriculture • Agricultural
• Crop-Physiology Economics Chemistry
• Plant Pathology • Forestry • Agricultural
• Animal Husbandry Microbiology
• Plant Protection
• Environmental • Home Science
• Soil Science
Sciences
• Entomology
 What is Horticulture?
• Horticulture, from Latin hortus meaning garden
and colere meaning to cultivate, focuses on the use of small
plots.
• Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art,
science, technology, and business of plant cultivation.
• It includes the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs,
sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds and non-food crops
such as grass and ornamental trees and spices grown for their food
value, and medicinal plants.
• It also includes plant conservation, landscape restoration, landscape
and garden design, construction, and maintenance, and
arboriculture, ornamental trees and lawns.
• HQ(Head Quarter) of International Society for Horticulture Science
(ISHS) is at Belgium.
 What are the branches of Horticulture?
There are 7 branches of horticulture:
• 1. Pomology or fruticulture and removal of trees, shrubs, and
other woody plants.
• Branch dealing with fruit
• 5. Landscaping
cultivation is known as
• Branch of horticulture dealing with the
pomology or fruticulture. production, presentation, and care of
• 2. Olericulture landscapes, flowers, and other plants.
• Branch of horticulture dealing with • 6. Viticulture
vegetable cultivation such as beans, • Cultivation and retailing grapes are
tomatoes, etc. known as viticulture.
• 3. Floriculture • 7. Oenology
• The branch of horticulture deals with • Study of all the characteristics of wine
flower cropping such as roses, plant and wine-making.
carnations, etc, and gardening.
• 4. Arboriculture
• Branch of horticulture deals with the
assortment, planting, maintenance,
 Pomology or fruticulture
• Branch dealing with fruit cultivation is known as
pomology or fruticulture it is Latin word.
• The word 'pomo' is derived from Latin pomum,
which means 'fruit
Viticulture
• Cultivation and retailing grapes are known as viticulture.
Oenology
• Study of all the characteristics of wine plant and wine-making.

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 Course objectives
After completion of this course, students could able:-
• To be acquainted with the classes and importance of
fruit crops.
• To identify the environment, climate and soil type
suitable for fruit crops.
• To select nursery sites and establish fruit nursery and
orchards.
• Have skills and techniques of propagating fruit trees
vegetatively.
• To have ability of identifying and control methods of
major pre and post harvest fruit diseases and pests.
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 Course content .

 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1. Fruit tree propagation
1.1. Selection & preparation of the nursery site.
[Link] structures
[Link] soils
1.4. Propagation techniques
Chapter 2. Establishing the orchard
2.1. Site selection
2.2. Soil
2.3. Topography
2 4. Climate
2.5. Water availability

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 Cont....
Chapter 3. Citrus fruit
3.1. Crop description
3.2. Economic importance & distribution
3.3. Culture
3.4. Cultivars ( Sour Orange, Sweet Orange, Rough Lemon, Lemon , Lime, Mandarine,
Pumelo, Kumquat,Grapefriut,)

Sweet Orange varities

- Valencia
- Hamline
- Washington navel
- Tangelo
- Pineapple
- Blood orange

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 Cont....
Chapter 4. Major Tropical Fruits & Nuts
4.1. Avocado
4.2. Banana
4.3. Cashew nuts
4.4. Coconut
4.5. Date
4.6. Guava
4.7. Macadamia nut
4.8. Mango
4.9. Olive
4.10. Papaya
4.11. Pineapple

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 Cont....

Chapter 5. Minor Fruits

5.1. Mammy apple
5.2. Strawberry
5.3. Tree tomato
5.4. Loquat
5.5. Mulberry
5.6. Passion fruit
5.7. Pomegranate
5.8. Sapodilla
5.9. Bread fruit

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 Cont....
Chapter 6. Deciduous fruits in the tropics
6.1. Introduction
6.1.2. Stone fruit (AANCPP)
Almond, Apricot, Nectarine, Cherries, Plum, Peaches

6.1.3. Pome fruits ( APQ)

Apple, Pear, Cherries

6.2. Miscellaneous Fruit
6.2.1. Grapes
6.2.2. Kiwi or Chinese gooseberry
6.2.3. Fig
6.2.4. Persiommon

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 Practical Studies
• Acquire experience in fruit tree and cultivar
identification;
• nursery selection and layout;
• propagation techniques;
• field establishment;
• pruning and training.

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Methods of Evaluation/Assessment of the Course:

• Field work, report, & assignment.......... 20%,

• Quiz........... (LN + EV + D + PM)...........10%
• Mid exam (LN + EV + D + PM) .............25%,
• Final exam (LN + EV + D + HO) .............45%.

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 INTRODUCTION

• What is the importance of fruit crops and processing?

• Why they are ready made food? Because they does not need
fuel for cooking, …
• Fruits are good sources of vitamins and minerals without
which human body cannot maintain proper health and
develop resistance to disease they also contain pectin,
cellulose, fats, proteins etc.
• As far as scope is concerned, the production of fruits
increased to a large extent.
• Biological and social factors are driving the need for new
farming practices.
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 Cont....

• Fruit crop ecology is the study of the interactions among

the many biological, environmental and management
factors that make up and influence fruit production.
• Growing fruit with in a complex web that connects soil,
plants, animals, humans, landscapes and the atmosphere.
• An ecological approach to fruit production recognizes
that these factors interact in a changing environment and
that it is impossible to change one aspect of a farming
system without affecting others.
• Angle formed by attached of a branch to the trunk is
called Crotch. 

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 Cont....
• Growers and consumers have benefited greatly from technological advances in
fruit production that have increased yields and reduced labor costs.
• High Water Use Efficiency (WUE) for fruit crop production by Drip irrigation.
• There have also been some unexpected environmental and social consequences,
such as pesticide resistance, loss of biodiversity, potential water pollution,
consumer concerns about chemical residues and issues of worker safety.
• Detrimental effect of host plant on the biology of insect is known as Antibiosis.
• “Queen of Fruits” is called Mangosteen. Chromosome number of
Mangosteen is 2x = 24.
• “Queen of Nuts” is called Peanut but “King of Nuts” is called Walnut.
• “King of Arid Fruits” is called Jujube it is also known as ber, red or Chinese
dates.
• “Fruit of the 21st century” is called Aonla.
• . Amrapali Mango variety is suitable for high density planting

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 Cont....

• Growers and scientists are

looking for better ways to
work within a healthy system
of soils, plants and animals.
• Many pieces of the ecological
systems are familiar to
horticulturists.
• They can use ecosystem
knowledge to design
operations that result in high
quality fruit, a healthy
environment and confident
consumers.
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 Fruit processing
• Fruits are something that we eat every day.
• Fruits are called perishable products which means that they
cannot be stored for long durations.
• The solution to this problem is fruit processing.
• Fruit processing is a process that converts fruits into jams,
juices, jellies, etc.
• These processing methods include storage in cold areas,
drying salting, etc.
• This process makes the fruits available all around the year and
makes their storage possible.
• Fruit can go through numerous types of processing,
including canning, drying, and juicing.
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 Cont....
• Some types of processed fruit are fruit preserves, canned fruit, and fruit
juices.
• Processed fruit is generally not as healthy as fresh, raw fruit.
• Washing, drying, and packaging fruit is usually not considered
processing.
• At the time of fruit ripening level of ABA increases.
• Most abundant and basic Auxin is IAA.
• Transportation of fruits is affected by Method of packaging, stage of
ripening.
and distance of market.
• Percent of juice in fruit jelly is 25%.
• Ethylene chemical or a ripening hormone used for de-greening of fruit.
• The edible part of Litchi Fleshy aril.
• It is a non-climacteric fruit.
• Gulabi is an important cultivar of Litchi.
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 CHAPTER 1.
FRUIT TREE PROPAGATION

• All trees have a shoot system, or top, and a root

system.
• With few exceptions, the top is genetically different
from the root system.
• They are two different plants, genetically distinct,
growing separately.
• The separate plants were united in a way that
caused the two to grow together and function as one.
• This is accomplished through plant propagation.
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 Cont ...

• There are two methods of plant propagation:

sexual (seed) and asexual (vegetative).
• Sexual propagation entails the recombination of genetic
material.
• In nature this results in progeny that differ from each
other and from their parents.
• Viviparous means germination of seeds on mother plant.
Or Germination of seed while it still remains attached
with the parent source is Vivipary.
• Pollination present in walnut is by Wind.
• Vegetative propagation is clonal; progeny are genetic
copies of the parent plant.
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 Cont....

• Budding and grafting are asexual or vegetative

techniques used to maintain the cultivated
varieties (cultivars) nearly all of which are clones.
• Due to open pollination, more than 99 percent of
all seedlings grown from clones bear fruit that is
inferior to that produced by the parent trees.
• Fruit will be unlike parents in flavor, color, date
of ripening, and many other characteristics.
• For this reason, it is necessary to graft or bud most
kinds of fruit tree seedlings to the desired variety.
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 Cont...
• Although all members of the same
clone have the same genetic makeup
‘Delicious’ apples
and can be exactly alike,
environmental factors can greatly
modify the expression of the genetic
character so that the appearance and
behavior of individual plants can be
strikingly different.
• An orchard of ‘Delicious’ apples that
is pruned, irrigated, sprayed and
fertilized properly for high quality
productivity will appear totally
different from an adjacent abandoned
orchard of the same cultivar, yet the
plants are genetically identical.
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 Cuttings
• Cuttings are used mainly in the
clonal propagation of herbaceous
and some woody ornamental
species.
• Cuttings are less frequently used for
fruit and nut trees.
• A cutting is a piece of vegetative
tissue (stem, root or leaf) that, when
placed under suitable environmental
conditions, will regenerate the
missing parts and produce a self-
sustaining plant.
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 Cont....
• The propagation method in dragon fruit is by
stem cutting and by seed also.
• The dragon fruit indigenous in Americas.
• Soil rich in organic matter is ideal for the
cultivation of dragon fruit
• Stem cuttings are of several types.
• Some species can be readily propagated from
hardwood cuttings of stems.
• These cutting, which include several nodes The scientific name
(usually 6-12" or 12 - 20 cm of stem), are of dragon fruit
placed in the ground in nursery rows with just Hylocereus undatus

the top bud showing.

• The cuttings will generate roots and can be,
after a year’s growth, transplanted as self
sustaining plants.
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 Cont...

• Grapevines can be readily rooted using

hardwood cuttings and have long been
propagated this way.
• This is one reason that some of our grape
cultivars are so ancient.
• Some olive cultivars are also readily
propagated by stem cuttings.
• Fig and pomegranate can be propagated this
way.
• Most other fruit and nut tree species will not
form roots from hardwood stem cuttings.
• Some of these can be induced to produce
roots by treatment with plant hormones
and/or heating the cutting beds;
• Others cannot be induced to form roots
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 Grapevines

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 Layering
• Layering is another method of
rooting stems, in which stems
are induced to produce
adventitious roots while they
remain attached to the parent
plant.
• Some plants (blackberries,
raspberries) naturally form
layers when the tips of branches
touch the ground (tip layering).
• Others can be manipulated to do
so by simple or tip layering,
mound layering and air layering.
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 Cont...
• Simple layering is used to
propagate filberts (hazelnuts).
• Long shoot is bent to the ground,
placed in a hole several inches
deep, and bent back so that the tip
of the shoot is exposed above
ground.
• The hole is then filled with soil.
• The curved section is usually cut
or nicked which promotes rooting.
• After one season’s growth the
rooted layer is cut from the parent
plant, dug and transplanted.

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31
 Grafting & Budding
• Grafting and budding are the most
important means of propagating fruit
and nut trees for two reasons:
• Species and cultivars that cannot be
propagated by cutting or layering can
be propagated by budding and grafting.
• Budding and grafting allows the use of
rootstocks with desirable characteristics
that make them preferable to growing a
tree on its own roots.

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- Scion or cion - the upper part
of the graft that becomes the
shoot system of the new plant
- stock, rootstock or
understock - the lower part of
the graft that becomes the root
system of the new plant
Budding - a type of grafting
where the scion is just a bud
piece or small chip of wood
with a bud attached
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 Cont....
• Grafting and budding involve joining two genetically distinct
plants so that they unite to continue growth as a single plant.
• The two parts of the compound plant are known as the stock
(or under stock or rootstock) and the scion.
• The stock refers to the lower part of the grafted plant the
part that produces the root system.
• The scion is the upper portion that produces the shoot
system.
• In budding, a detached bud of the desired variety is placed
under the bark of a seedling tree.
• In a few weeks, the bud shield and the seedling heal
together, then the bud of the desired variety grows to
produce the new tree, which is genetically like the parent
tree from which the bud was taken and which produces fruit
true to the variety.
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 Cont...

• In grafting, a short section of a shoot taken from a tree of the

desired variety is inserted into a limb or trunk of a seedling
tree.
• There are several methods of grafting and budding; in all the
objective is to bring the cambium layers of the stock and scion
together and to hold them tightly while the graft union forms.
• Buds on the scion wood and bud wood (material to be used as
the scion or bud source) must be dormant when the grafting or
budding is done.
• For whip and cleft grafts the operation is done with freshly
collected scion wood onto dormant stocks.
• Bark grafting is done after growth has started ; for this
purpose scion wood is stored at about 0°C until it is used.

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 Grafting Methods

• It is essential, for all grafts,

that the graft union be held
together tightly and secured
by tying or wrapping using
string or rubber bands (whip
graft), wedging (cleft graft),
or even nailing (bark graft).
• The fresh graft is sealed with
grafting wax to prevent
drying of the graft union
before it heals.
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 Cont....

• Whip graft: the stock

and scion are of more-
or-less equal
diameters.
• Whip grafting is often
used in root grafts
where scion wood is
grafted to a piece of
root.
Illustration of whip gr
afting
.
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• Cleft graft: scion wood ¼ to ½
inch in diameter is inserted into
stubs of stock that are 3 to 4
inches in diameter. Usually done
before growth resumes.
• Bark graft: Used for species that
is difficult to graft.
• Done after growth has resumed
and the bark separates easily
from the wood.

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 Budding Methods
• T-budding is the most common
method for propagating fruit trees.
• In T-budding, a T-shaped cut is
made in the stock.
• Buds (taken from bud sticks or bud
wood) are inserted under the bark of
small seedling stock plants a few
inches above ground level.
• The buds are inserted and tied in
place with budding rubbers.
• After growth starts the tops of the
seedling rootstocks are cut off.
T-budding illustrated.
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 Cont...
• Patch-budding is used for thicker
barked trees, especially walnut and
pecan.
• Here a patch of bark is removed and a
same-sized patch with the bud is
inserted in its place.
• Patch budding is normally done
during the growing season when the
bark separates readily from the wood
along the cambial layer.

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 Compatibility
• If you have one peach tree in your yard and want to extend
its fruit-bearing season, you can bud or graft one or more
variety of peach on it.
• You can bud several varieties of peach on a young tree or
graft two or three additional varieties onto an older tree or
add a pollinating variety to a tree by grafting.
• Within a limited amount of space, you can grow several
varieties of fruit on a few trees.
• However you can usually grow only like kinds of fruit on
the same tree.
• There are a few exceptions to this rule. For example, you
can grow plums, apricots, almonds, nectarines, and peaches
on peach seedling roots, but the growth habitat of each
differs, so it is difficult to manage these different species on
the same tree.
• The safest method is to put varieties of like fruits (species)
on one tree and varieties of another on a separate tree.

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 Rootstocks
• Rootstocks are a means to propagate clonal cultivars.
• Many species and cultivars cannot be propagated on their own
roots.
• The only means of clonal propagation is by grafting or
budding onto rootstocks of the same or related species.
• Rootstocks offer an opportunity to adapt a given tree to
additional environmental factors as well, and, in many cases,
trees on carefully selected root stocks, can be grown in sites
where it would otherwise be impossible or nonproductive.
• Rootstocks provide resistance or protection against soil-borne
organisms that are pathogens or pests.
• More common than insect-resistance (i.e. phylloxera) is
resistance to soil-borne pathogens, especially pathogenic fungi
and some bacteria. These include organisms that cause oak
root rot, stem and crown rots, wilt diseases and crown gall.
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 Other factors involved in the selection of rootstocks.
• Controlling tree size: Ultimate tree size can be controlled
by rootstock in many species. Apple is the best example.
• A complete series of apple rootstocks exist which regulate
the size of the tree from the most dwarfing to quite large.
• Dwarfing rootstocks are used in many other species: pear,
cherry, plum, peach, citrus and others.
• Adaptation to unfavorable soil conditions: Rootstocks
may be tolerant of poorly drained, heavy clay or saline soil
conditions.
• Resistance to low winter temperatures: Some species,
especially apple and citrus, survive cold winters better on
some rootstocks than others.
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Selection & preparation of the nursery site.

Site selection
• The selection of the area for a nursery is critical and it
should be sited as centrally as possible to the field(s) to
be planted. In addition, the following should also be
considered:
Topography (Terrain)
• The selected area should be flat to gently undulating
with slopes between 0 and 30 and preferably, with a
reliable/permanent source of water supply for
irrigation purpose.
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 Water Supply
• Water requirements (quality and quantity) must be
determined prior to starting site preparation.
• The easiest source of water is where there is a large
natural pond or lake whereby all that is required is to
place an intake pipe to connect with a pump unit.
• A back-up system should be considered, particularly in
isolated areas or areas of lower or unreliable rainfall.
• Seedling Pot or tray are related to Nursery.
Drainage
• The site chosen should not be prone to flooding, which
will damage seedlings and buildings (stores).
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 Area
• To achieve good growing conditions with
minimal risk of etiolation, a main nursery
planting density of 13,800 polybags per ha
with 0.91m(3ft) x 0.91m(3ft) D planting is
recommended excluding allowance for
accessibility.
• The spacing should be increased by another
0.15m (0.5ft) if the seedlings are anticipated to
be kept in the nursery for longer than 12
months.
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 Accessibility and Nursery Roads
• Roads within the nursery and their alignments
will need to be carefully planned and laid out
depending on the placement distance of the
polybags and the type of irrigation to be
utilised.
• Access roads to the nursery should be
sufficiently wide to allow vehicles to
manoeuvre during peak planting periods to
facilitate supervision and movement of
materials.
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 Site Preparation
• The preparation of the area for a nursery is
important to allow optimum seedling growth,
maintenance of nursery site, unimpeded access
and to provide hygienic conditions for plant
growth.
• Four main activities are involved in preparing
a site for nursery, namely nursery design,
clearing, fencing and lining.

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 Nursery Design

• A well-designed nursery allows for access of

many vehicles during evacuation of seedlings
for field planting especially for large-scale
plantings.
• This objective can be achieved through the
drawing up of a plan to show all paths, roads
and irrigation points. An example is shown in
Figure 1.

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 Clearing
• With the boundaries determined, felling and clearing
should be carried out at least 2 months before the arrival
of the seeds. Once clearing is completed, proceed to fence
the area, fill the polybags and install the irrigation system.
Fencing
• The major types of fences utilised for nurseries are the
conventional barbed wire fence and the electric fence.
The Conventional Fence
• The specifications for the conventional fence depend on
the species of animals that it is required to keep out. For
example, a four-strand barbed wire fence, with wires
spaced at 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 and 1.2 m from ground should be
adequate to control cattle and goats.
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 Propagation structures
• For propagation, framed structures such as green
house, poly tunnels, culture room, hardening chamber
and mist chamber are some important structures.
• A greenhouse is a framed, infrastructure covered with
a transparent material in which crops can be grown
under at least partially controlled environment.
• Various designs of greenhouse viz., shade net house,
plastic film green house, glass house and natural
green houses may be designed according to the need
and resource availability.

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 Cont...

• A shade net nursery usually has 20 m x 10 m dimensions. It is

erected using GI pipes as a support. UV stabilized HDPE
green or black colour shade net of 50 to 75% shade intensity
is used to cover the nursery area at a height of 6.5 feet.
• Wire grid is provided at the top of the structure as support for
shade net.
• To prevent insect entry, 40 mesh UV stabilized nylon insect
proof net is fitted on all the four sides of the nursery.
• Provision is also made to pull polythene sheet over the pro-
trays in the event of rainfall by way of making low tunnel
structure.
• For preparing low cost poly tunnel structure, 3/4" LDPE
pipes and 400 gauge UV stabilized polyethylene sheet are
used. Sometime bamboo poles and poly sheets may also be
used.
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 Tree nursery:
Establishment and management

• The difficulty of procuring tree seeds and their

rising cost makes it necessary to find means to
increase seedling survival and growth.
• Nurseries provide the necessary control of
moisture, light, soil and predators and allow
production of healthy and hardy seedlings.
• Here are some steps to make construction of a
nursery and seedling culture more successful.

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  1. Select a good site.
• An ideal location would be a place near the house (so
that the nursery is often and well taken cared of),
with good soil, near a reliable source of water and
where water does not stagnate.
• Avoid placing the nursery or raising species in an
area where existing species of the same family have
pest and disease problems.
2. Clear the site.
• Remove stumps, roots, rhizomes and stones in the
area. Leaves and other non-wood debris can be
separated and made into compost.
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 3. Layout the beds

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 4. Build the nursery structure.

• Some vegetation surrounding the nursery can

provide shade but the following shade
structures can also be constructed:
• · Hish-shade construction for community
nursery.
• Construct a shade roof to provide partial shade.
It should be loosely woven and easily removed
when the seedlings need to be hardened off.

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 5. Prepare the germination beds.
• If many seedlings are to be raised as in for fuel
wood or timber plantation, it is generally easier
and cheaper to raise them in a seedbed and
transplant the bare-root seedlings (uprooted
seedlings without soil).
• This technique works best for hardy species
with a strong taproot, such as mahogany or
yemane.
• Bare-root seedlings are easier to transport and
plant than potted seedlings. However, survival is
lower.
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 Cont....

• Small or delicate seeds are those with low or unknown

germination percentage, are best sown in a seedbed or seed
box and then transplanted to pots, if desired.
• Seedbed
• · Dig the soil, break lumps of earth and remove remaining
roots and rhizomes.
• · Loosen the soil and make a raised bed, narrow enough to
allow for weeding without stepping on it.
• · Add compost and river sand. Mix well. Sand loosens the
soil for better drainage and easy uprooting of the seedlings.
• · Level the bed. Using a bolo or a stick, make shallow
furrows.

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05/27/2023 Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 61
 Cont...

• Sow the seeds (treated with protectants

necessary) in the furrows. Allow sufficient
room for the seedlings to grow if they are to be
directly out planted.
• If the seedlings will be transplanted to pots
when they are still small, the seed may be
sown more densely.
• · Cover the furrows thinly with soil no more
than 2-3 times the thickness of the seeds.

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 Potting soils
Lining
• Lining is carried out to space the poly bags evenly in the
nursery, so that seedlings have good and uniform access to
sunlight and to achieve the most cost effective irrigation
system.
• Poly bags are lined at 0.91m (3 ft) x 0.91m (3 ft) triangular
spacing to give each seedling the optimum growth space. All
seedling rows must be straight along the axis at 60o to each
other and parallel to irrigation lines.
• In the Sumisansui irrigation system, MK II tubes are laid down
between the poly bags at every 4 rows, a 1 m wide path is
provided at every 8 rows for easy access. When the seedlings
are about 7 – 8 months old, additional MK II tubes are added
between the existing MK II tubes to give a final layout of 1
tube for every 2-seedling row. This is illustrated in Figure 2.
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05/27/2023 Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 64
 Cont...

• Prepare the seedling pots as the seeds start to

germinate.
• Mix equal parts of sand, soil and compost.
Pulverize soil to break up clods and lumps
• If seedling bags are to be used, perforate the
bags and fill them with the medium up to the
brim, firm enough to stand. Push inwards the
two pointed ends of the bags to flatten the
bottoms. Arrange neatly in the nursery

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 Cont....

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  Propagation techniques
• Many people mistakenly believe that fruit trees
grow true to name from seeds.
• In reality, if you collect seed from a fruit grown
on a plant, the seeds will produce plants that
will be a hybrid of two plants.
• The new plant will be the same kind of plant,
but its fruit and vegetative portions may not
look the same as the parent because the plant is
"heterozygous." Therefore, all fruit trees must
be vegetatively propagated by either grafting or
budding methods.
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 Cont....

• Fruit growers frequently use grafting techniques to top

work new varieties or strains of fruit onto established trees
bearing misnamed or obsolete varieties and to repair injury
or damage caused by mice, rabbits, deer, or mechanical
means. Commercial nursery workers propagate new fruit
trees, and producing a tree ready for planting takes several
years.
• All of the temperate-zone deciduous fruit plants may be
propagated by budding.
• Cleft, whip, and bridge grafting of apple and pear is
possible, but such grafts are not often successful on stone
fruits.
• Sweet cherry and, occasionally, peach may be successfully
grafted using the side
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graft onto a 2- to 3-year-old limb. 68
Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW
 Wrapping and Waxing

• As a general rule, all grafts made by budding or whipping

should be wrapped.
• Grafts made by clefting, side limb insertion (often called "hip
graft"), inarching, and bridging need to be waxed, and in
some instances nailed tight.
• Many cloth-backed and plastic tapes are available for use in
wrapping the graft, although plastic tapes appear to be easier
to use. Rubber composition bud strips are used to wrap the
dormant buds. The plastic materials come in rolls of 3/8- and
1/2-inch widths and are well suited for grafting purposes.
When carefully wrapped, they will form a very tight seal.
• The plastic tape is secured by pulling the free end under the
last turn around the stem.
• Whether the tape is wrapped from the bottom up or vice
versa makes little difference. However, making the wrapping
as airtight as possibleCompiled
05/27/2023
is important.
by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 69
 Collecting Scion Wood
• The success of any form of propagation depends on the
quality of the scion wood to be grafted. Collect scion or
bud wood early in the day while temperatures are cool and
the plants are still fully turgid.
• The best vegetative buds usually come from the current
season's growth or dormant wood that grew the previous
year.
• Mature buds are most desirable; discard terminal and
younger buds.
• To keep buds from drying out, getting hot, or freezing
(depending on the season), place the bud wood into plastic
bags or wrap it in moist towels or burlap as you collect it.
Place bud wood of only one variety in a labeled bag.
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 Types of Grafting or Budding
• Time of season will largely determine what
type of propagation techniques you will need
to use to create new plants.
• All forms of top working and repair grafting
are done only when the plants are dormant in
late winter to early spring.
• Budding can be done in the dormant season
with a dormant chip bud but is most often
done during the growing season using either T-
budding or chip budding.
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 Bench Grafting
• Bench grafting, also known as whip and tongue
grafting, is performed indoors, preferably in a cool
area. An unheated garage or barn is an ideal location.
• This method is most successful for grafting material
pencil sized (1/4 to 3/8 inch) to about 1 inch in
diameter.
• Because of the large amount of cambial contact, it
heals quickly and makes a strong union. Ideally, the
stock and scion should be the same diameter. This
type of graft is made when both the stock and scion
are dormant (late March to early April).
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 Preparing and performing bench grafting.

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 Cleft Graft
• Cleft Grafting is the most commonly used
method for top working a relatively mature
tree over to another variety.
• This system is used on stocks from 1 to 3
inches in diameter.
• The scion is prepared by making a tapering cut
1 to 2 inches long on each side (Figures 3a and
3b).
• The scion should be 3 to 4 inches long and
about 3/8 to 1/2 inch in diameter.
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Tapering cut used to prepare the scion for a cleft graft. left graft.

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 Covering scion and graft with wound
dressing.

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 Bridge and Inarch Grafts
• Rodents, machinery, and cold weather often cause the bark
to be removed or separated from a part (or all) of the trunk.
• When a minor injury is noticed early, bridge grafting may
be used to save the tree. Trim the edges of the girdled
section back to sound bark as shown along lines in Figure
7X to Y and 7X' to Y', and cut the scion as illustrated in
7D.
• Place the scion along the trunk so that the beveled edges
rest on sound bark at 7A and A'.
• Mark and remove the bark rectangles as indicated. The
stem piece to be inserted should be slightly longer than
needed to ensure a snug fit.

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Bridge graft and inarching of a root sucker (C).

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 Successful inarch graft using rootstock liners
when young.

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 Bark and Inlay Grafts
• The bark graft is used frequently to obtain a larger
amount of surface contact when top working a tree to a
new variety .
• The scion, however, is not as secure as when the inlay
graft is used.
• The stock is cut off and a vertical slit is made as at 9A.
The bark is loosened, the scion is set, and then the bark
is pressed in place and the trunk is tightly wrapped.
• Alternatively, nails can be inserted as indicated at 9B.
The properly cut scion can be seen at 9C. All exposed
surfaces should be waxed.

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 Bark graft.

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 Finished bark graft.

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 Inlay grafting

• Inlay grafting is suitable for top working stocks that are more
than 1/2 inch in diameter (Figure 11).
• Scions are cut as in 11A, and set on the stock as in 11C. The
area of the stock covered by the scion is then marked with a
knife and the bark is removed (11B).
• After removing the bark, insert the scion and secure it with
number 16 or 18 flat-head wire nails (11D).
• Several scions (up to four or five) can be inserted, and
grafting should be done when the bark slips for the bark
graft. Wax all exposed parts.
• The following year, return to the tree and remove all but the
strongest-growing graft.

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 Inlay graft.

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 Budding
• Budding is another form of grafting where only
the bud is used rather than a piece of scion with
several buds.
• There are two types of budding: shield or T-
budding and chip budding.
• Budding is commonly done in late summer, but
dormant chip budding can be done in late
winter before growth starts.
• Budding is the primary method used by nursery
workers propagating fruit trees.
05/27/2023 Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 85
 Shield or T-Budding
• T-budding operation is limited to the period of the
summer when the bark is said to slip (Figure 12)--when
it separates easily from the wood.
• This usually occurs from late May to early June and
from mid-July to early September, but most budding is
done during the latter period.
• Budsticks of the scion variety (Figure 13A) are
prepared from the mid-portion of the current season's
growth. The rootstock is either a one-year-old seedling
or rooted layer.
• This is also referred to as fall (or dormant) budding and
is the common budding system used.
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 Slipping bud.

05/27/2023 Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 87

 Bud stick (A), bud to be inserted (B), T-cut (C),
bud insertion (D), and finished wrapping (E).

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 Cont....

• In dormant budding, the bud remains in place on the

trunk of the rootstock until the following spring, when
the rootstock is cut off just above the scion bud.
• A tree may be produced in one year by June budding,
but producing a finished tree by dormant budding
requires at least two growing seasons. In either case,
the scion buds (13B) are cut from the bud stick and
placed in the "T" as indicated at 13C and 13D.
• The bud is then wrapped in place with a rubber bud
strip as shown at 13E. The rubber bud strip will
disintegrate in several weeks. If it does not, or you use
a non biodegradable tie, you will need to cut the
rubber band.
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 Chip Budding
• Chip budding is a technique that can be used
whenever mature buds are present and the bark is not
slipping.
• It can be done in the spring before growth starts and
when the stock and the scion are still totally dormant.
• Chip budding is generally used when the stock and
scion are relatively small (1/2 to 1 inch in diameter).
• In recent years, most commercial tree fruit nurseries
have changed from T-budding to chip budding
because the buds tend to grow out better.

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 Figure 14. Chip budding cuts.

05/27/2023 Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 91

 Cont...

• The same procedure is then followed on the stock,

making sure to match the size of the "chip" cut
from the bud stick.
• Unlike the T-bud, there are no protective flaps to
keep the chip bud from drying out. Therefore,
securely wrapping the bud is necessary to seal the
cut edges, as well as to hold the bud piece in place.
Nursery workers' adhesive tape works well,
although white or transparent plastic tape is more
often used. Once the buds start to grow, the tape
must be cut.
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 Growing Fruit Plants from Seed

• Grafting and budding require a compatible

rootstock or stock plant onto which you attach
your desired variety of fruit plant.
• An inexpensive way to obtain a seedling
rootstock is to collect seeds from the type of
plant you are propagating.
• This section gives a simple method to help
germinate seeds to produce grafting rootstocks.

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 Cont....

• The seeds of all common tree fruits (apple,

pear, peach, and cherry) require a chilling
period before they will germinate and form
new plants.
• The chilling period, known as dormancy or
after-ripening, occurs after the fruit portion is
ripe.
• During this period the embryo develops until it
is mature.

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 T
issue Culture's Application for Horticultural Cro
ps
• Tissue culture created the possibility to
generate a whole plant from single cells or
tissues, which opened new approaches to
plant improvement.
• It has become an essential technique to
produce plants with desired genetics,
characteristics, and productivity.

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 Cont....

• The production of horticulture crops is the most

.

extensive application of plant tissue culture

techniques.
• Horticulture is defined as the branch of plant
agriculture that focuses on the cultivation of
fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants.
• The goal of the in-vitro production of ornamental
plants is to produce disease-free and large
numbers of genetically identical plants.

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 Cont....
• An additional benefit of the tissue culture technique is that it
doesn’t require a large number of stock plants for mass
production.
• Only a few explants work initially to establish the culture of the
specific plant and then further lines of production utilize the
cultured plants.
• This technique also allows for the production of hybrids of
incompatible plants by embryo rescue, somatic hybridization,
or embryo culture.
• Not all tissue culture techniques have been successful in
producing horticulture plants.
• Some techniques like embryo culture and axillary bud breaking
have major applications while some other techniques have
been limited to the experimental stage in crop production.
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 The tissue culture of fruit crops is followed for
mainly five purposes that include:

• Mass propagation of the desired line of the

plants 
• Obtain virus-free plants 
• Rapid mass production of plants for breeding
purposes
• Preserve germplasm
• Produce haploids for the breeding program

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 Cont....

• The fruit crops that are most widely produced

by clonal propagation include banana, papaya,
passion fruit, fig, mulberry, and jackfruit.
• The development of plants through somatic
embryogenesis has had limited success.
• The plants successfully propagated by somatic
embryogenesis include Citrus spp., mango,
banana, and date palm.

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 Cont....
• Some other applications of the tissue culture
technique include the production of pathogen-
free plants, whose major use is in germplasm
conservation (preservation).
• Mass propagation of horticulture crops is
required to increase the productivity to feed the
rapidly growing population.
• Tissue culture is an efficient technique to
improve the quality and nutrition of the crops.
• So, it’s enhanced role and usability can be shortly
observed to fulfill the requirements of mankind.

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 CHAPTER 2.
ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD

Points to consider when choosing an orchard

enterprise
• Location
• Costs and returns on investment
• Complexity of management
• Markets
• Labour requirements
• Water security
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 Cont....

• The key areas of risk to production include:

pollination, pests and diseases, and climatic
factors such as, drought, frost, hail, wind and heat.
• Orchard yield and quality is determined by the
integrated management of the soil, irrigation, tree
canopy and nutrition.
• These inputs are dependent on each other as water
and nutrients cannot be separated from the soil
that supports the root system that in turn dictates
the performance of the canopy and therefore the
yield.
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 Orchard infrastructure and equipment
There is a significant long term investment in infrastructure in
orchard development both in trees and equipment.
A list of basic farm infrastructure and operating equipment
may include the following:
• Trees
• Irrigation infrastructure and controller
• Fertigation, tank and injector
• Machinery shed
• Grading and packing machinery
• Cool rooms
• Tractor
• Orchard
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 Cont....

• Herbicide sprayer
• Slasher
• Forklift
• Bulk bins & bin trailers
• Trellising
• Ladders
• Pruning equipment
• Dryer
• Netting (shade, hail and bird)
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 Quality Assurance
• Quality Assurance (QA) allows a business to document in a
formal management plan all of the actions that are needed to
deal with risks identified in producing a product for market.
• This allows the business to define the real risks, manage
them appropriately and be able to prove through verifiable
records and external auditing that risks and management
processes have been identified and followed.
• There is an expectation from major retail chains that
suppliers will have a QA system in place and some retailers
have their own QA systems.
• QA adoption will help establish the grower as a reliable
supplier of quality produce services in national and
international markets.
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 Markets
• Produce can be sold at the farm gate, at farmer's
markets, to processors, direct to supermarkets,
through wholesale markets or export markets.
• Growers may choose to sell their produce
themselves, through cooperatives, agents or
growers' organizations.
• Where the product is sold will influence a range of
other factors, such as, which quality assurance
system is needed, how product is packed, transport
costs, quality specifications and payment options.

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 Labour requirements
• Fruit orchards have a high requirement for manual Labour to
carry out detailed management of the trees including
pruning, training, thinning and harvesting.
• Nut trees require less manual maintenance and crops are
harvested mechanically.
• The Labour requirement varies significantly for different
crops depending on picking frequency, pruning and training
requirements.
• In choosing what crop to grow the level and frequency of
labour needed to manage the crop should be taken into
account.
• It is essential to have enough labour available to carry out
key operations at critical
05/27/2023
production times.
Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 107
 Post harvest / cooling requirements
• Post harvest cooling and refrigerated storage of fruit is
important to maintain shelf life and preserve quality and
it is essential to have access to cool rooms to pre-cool
fruit and hold fruit prior to shipment to market.
• Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA) can be used to
extend the shelf life of many fruits even further.
• A combination of adjustment of temperature (T), oxygen
(O2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and relative humidity (RH)
levels can extend the shelf life of fruit for up to 12
months.
• Typical figures for storing peaches require -0.5 – 0
degree C, 2% O2, 4-5% CO2 and 95% RH.
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 Key factors for success
• Growing the right varieties (meeting market demand)
• Business and orchard management and
mechanization
• Economic return on investment
• Efficient use of water
• Shortest lead time to first commercial harvest
• Consistency of production including yield and quality
• Choosing the right region, soil type, available water
and land aspect
• Tree density may range from one hundred to several
thousand trees per hectare.
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 2.1. Site selection
Location and orchard site selection
• When choosing a potential site for an orchard,
issues relating to the land, such as soil type,
topography, aspect, slope and irrigation supply
need to be considered carefully.
• Climatic factors for the chosen site including
temperature, rainfall, wind, hail, chill units and
frost potential also need to be taken into
consideration.
• These factors are discussed in more detail under
the following headings.
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 Steps recommended as a guide to setting up a
new orchard
• Peg out the orchard tree lines accurately and install the
irrigation mains.
• Use a road grader to move the topsoil from the centre of the
traffic line to the tree line to create a bank approximately 0.5
m high.
• For acid soils (pH <6.0), apply lime (amount determined by
a soil test) in a 1 meter wide strip along the tree line and
incorporate with a rotary-hoe.
• Install irrigation laterals and micro jet sprinklers (output 5-
10 mm/hr) and irrigate for 4-5 hours.
• When the soil has drained to around field capacity (2-3
days), cultivate the entire orchard with a tined implement,
power harrow or a rotary hoe and smooth the soil surface.
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 2.2. Soil
• Tree crops tend to be planted on light-textured soils such as sandy
loams or loams.
• Soil types are classified by reference to the proportions of silt, sand
and clay, referred to as texture.
• Because texture may change with depth, the thickness of each soil
layer (horizon) should also be considered.
• Field assessments of soil include texture, colour, aggregation,
rooting depth of vegetation, presence of lime or gravel, hardpans and
water-tables.
• Soil analysis in the laboratory may include pH, strength, porosity,
water-holding capacity, organic matter, nutrient status, salt content,
cation exchange capacity (nutrient retention) slaking and dispersion.
• A soil test is essential before planting to allow application of soil
treatments and amendments which cannot effectively be carried out
after planting.
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 Salinity and sodicity

• Fruit and nut crops generally have a low tolerance to

salt.
• Soil salinity can be measured by electrical
conductivity (EC) of a soil solution present mainly as
sodium chloride (NaCl2) and high levels can result in
soil structure damage due to sodicity.
• A sodic soil (soils high in sodium) will disperse (run
together) upon wetting restricting moisture penetrating
the soil and set hard upon drying limiting the
movement of water, oxygen and the growth of tree
roots.
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 2.3. Topography and 2.4. Climate
• Site selection for an orchard must take into account local
and regional weather patterns.
• Many deciduous fruit and nut trees are adapted to a
Mediterranean climate of cool, wet winters and hot, dry
summers.
• Frosts in can injure flowers and affect fruit set and shoot
growth.
• Rain during spring and summer can increase the risk of
fungal and bacterial diseases while hail and strong winds
can cause physical damage to fruit and limbs.
• To avoid the risk of sunburn on fruit and limbs, covering
trees with shade cloth, sunburn protection sprays and
painting of tree limbs
05/27/2023
may be necessary.
Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 114
 Cont...

• Climate change and associated global warming

will require management of the higher
potential risk of sunburn, lack of chilling and
water stress of orchard trees.
• Climate change may also increase climate
variability and the likelihood of extreme
events such as heat, hail and late frost.
• The impact of climate change on rainfall and
the security of irrigation water supply is one of
the key factors to consider for sustainable
production of tree crops into the future.
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 2.5. Water availability
• Water availability is essential to consider as
commercial orchards must have reliability of supply
and cannot produce optimum yields without irrigation.
• Water management is one of the largest and most
important inputs into an orchard.
• Dry summers combined with shallow, fragile soils
means that in mid-summer following irrigation, there
may only be around a two or three day water supply at
optimum levels held in the soil.
• Orchard trees are dependent on a regular irrigation
supplied on demand, and dictated by the prevailing
weather conditions.
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 Variety selection

• Variety selection is critical and needs to be

based on market demand.
• The choice also depends on region and climate
e.g. low chill, susceptibility to frost or rain
(some fruit varieties are prone to splitting of the
stone and/or the flesh).
• Some stone fruit quickly become unfashionable
and so there is a need to review and renew the
varieties every few years by replanting.

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 CHAPTER 3.
CITRUS FRUIT
INTRODUCTION
• The basis for these projections is a spatial equilibrium model
of the world citrus market developed at the University of
Florida and modified by expert opinion, and other citrus
outlook studies.
• World citrus production and consumption have grown strongly
since the mid - 1980s.
• Production of oranges, tangerines, lemons and limes has
expanded rapidly, and even faster growth has been realized for
processed citrus products as improvements in transportation
and packaging have lowered costs and improved quality.
• Citrus canker is a Bacterial disease.
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 Cont...

• Rapid expansion of production and slower demand

growth for oranges and grapefruit, however, has resulted
in lower prices for both fresh and processed oranges and
grapefruit.
• The rate of new plantings has slowed, and projected
growth rates in both production and consumption over the
next ten years are expected to be lower than those
realized over the last ten years.
• São Paulo, Brazil and Florida, the United States will
continue to be the two largest processed orange producing
regions in the world.
• With expected continued growth of clementine
consumption, Spain is expected to expand its production
of05/27/2023
tangerines (mainlyCompiled
clementine varieties).
by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 120
 Orange Production

• Orange projections assume that orange production expansion will

slow down.
• The main reasons are serious disease problems in Brazil and Florida
and fewer new plantings elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere due to
the lagged effect of low prices in the past.
• More specifically, projected orange production in 2010 is 66.4
million tonnes, approximately 14 percent greater than that realized
over the 1997-99 period.
• The projected annual rate of growth of 1.12 percent is substantially
lower than the 3.46 percent that occurred from 1987-89 to 1997-99.
• The projected production is expected to be utilized as 36.3 million
tonnes fresh and 30.1 million tonnes processed.
• The share of production claimed by processed utilization is projected
to increase marginally.
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 Oranges

05/27/2023 Compiled by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 122

 Cont...
• Production in developing countries is projected to increase at
an annual rate of 1.23 percent.
• Over the next ten years, it is likely the Brazil will experience
a sizeable contraction of production as the combined effects
of disease and low grower prices are felt.
• By 2010, however, the Brazilian industry should recover, with
production returning to levels seen in the late 1990s, and
maintain its dominance of the world processed orange market.
• Mexico is vulnerable to the citrus tristeza virus that has
already been found in the Yucatan peninsula.
• Mexican producers, mainly small growers, have been unable
to take advantage of preferential access to the US market
offered under the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA).
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 3.1. Crop description
• World consumption of oranges grew at a compound rate of 3.5 percent over the
period 1987-89 to 1997-99.
• Consumption of fresh oranges grew at an annual rate of 2.8 percent, while
processed orange consumption grew at 4.4 percent per annum.
• Increased consumption of processed oranges in Europe was one of the primary
forces supporting expanded world consumption.
• Even though per capita consumption of fresh oranges in the EC declined from 12.6
to 9.5 kg, per capita processed orange consumption more than doubled to 28 kg
(fresh fruit equivalent).
• Per capita consumption of processed oranges also grew in Canada and United
States, which offset decreased fresh orange consumption in Canada.
• Among developed countries, the United States is one of the few that realized
modest increased consumption of fresh oranges.
• Vector of citrus greening disease is diphorina citri.

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 Tangerine or mandarin Production

• Nearly all tangerine production is intended for the fresh market.

• The major producers are China, Spain and Japan followed by Brazil, Italy,
Egypt, United States, Morocco, Argentina, Turkey, Republic of Korea and
Pakistan.
• Spain has had significant success with its seedless clementine varieties in
Europe and, more recently, the United States.
• World tangerine production is projected at 17 million tonnes in 2010, up from
15 million tonnes in 1997 - 1999.
• The projected annual growth rate of 1.07 percent is much smaller than the 4.31
annual growth rate realized between 1987 - 1989 and 1997 - 1999.
• Tangerine production is projected to expand in Spain, China, Morocco, Brazil
and Argentina.
• The industry may continue to contract in Japan, and production in the United
States is expected to decline as it faces competition from imports and other
fresh fruit alternatives.
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• Kinnow mandarin is across between King and Willow leaf.
 Tangerine

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 Lemons and limes Production

• Lemons and limes are acid citrus fruits that differ from other
citrus varieties in that they are typically consumed with other
foods.
• Lemons and limes are grown primarily for the fresh market,
with the juice from lemons and limes used primarily as
flavouring in beverages.
• Lemons are generally produced in temperate climates such as
the western United States, Spain, Italy and Argentina.
• Lemons are also adapted to drier climates such as Egypt and
Iran.
• Limes, on the other hand, are highly sensitive to cold weather
and are grown exclusively in tropical climates.
• 05/27/2023
The major producersCompiled
are Mexico and Brazil.
by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 127
 Grapefruit Production
• Growth in world grapefruit production has slowed with production
increasing from 4.55 million tonnes in 1987 - 89 to 5.45 million tonnes in
1997-99, an annual growth rate of 1.8 percent.
• The freezes of the early 1980s severely reduced grapefruit production in
the United States, when Cuba became an important supplier to traditional
markets for US citrus.
• By the mid - 1990s, world production had recovered to levels comparable
to the 1970s.
• Producers in the three largest grapefruit producing countries, the United
States, Israel and Cuba, however, are facing a difficult period with stagnant
demand for both fresh and processed grapefruit.
• The grapefruit production area in Florida, United States, is currently
contracting as producers are exiting grapefruit production.
• The citrus tristeza virus is projected to kill millions of grapefruit trees in
Florida.
• Grapefruit prices at this time are too low to encourage widespread
replacement
05/27/2023 of trees lost toCompiled
tristeza.
by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 128
 Grapefruit

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 3.2. Economic importance & distribution
• Fresh market prices are almost impossible to predict up to 2010
since so much depends on variations in annual crops in key
producing countries.
• There is likely to be some shift to processed juice consumption in
some developing countries, but in most producing areas, oranges
will continue to be consumed in fresh form.
• In view of demographic growth in some producing countries, prices
could remain stable in real terms or experience slight increases.
• In developed markets there continues to be a perceptible shift to
easy peelers, which should put downward price pressure on oranges
sold for fresh consumption.
• On balance however, prices are unlikely to change much in real
terms by 2010.
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 3.3. Culture / propagation
Composition of a Citrus Tree
• A commercial citrus tree usually consists of two parts: the scion and the
rootstock.
• The scion is the above-ground portion of the tree and comprises the main trunk,
limbs, leaves, and fruit.
• The rootstock, or stock, is the portion of the tree that consists of the lower trunk
and the root system of the tree.
• Rootstocks are usually grown from seeds, but can also be grown from cuttings
or tissue culture.
• The scion is joined to the rootstock via a process called grafting, or budding,
which is described in detail below.
• By using different cultivars for rootstock and scion, more desirable
characteristics can be incorporated into one single tree.
• A specific cultivar for the rootstock can render a citrus tree tolerant to different
stresses such as unfavorable soil conditions, soil borne pests and diseases, and
cold.
• Rootstock
05/27/2023 can also greatly influence the size,
Compiled by: GETACHEW fruit quality, and yield of a131
ASAMENEW citrus
 Horticultural Terms
• Plant propagation is the art and science of reproducing plants while
preserving their unique characteristics from one generation to the
next.
• Grafting is a specialized type of plant propagation where part of one
plant (the scion) is inserted into another (the rootstock or stock) in
such a way that they unite and grow as a single plant.
• Budding is a type of grafting, with the scion consisting of a single
bud attached to a piece of bark and sometimes a thin sliver of wood
underneath.
• Budding is the method of choice for propagating young citrus trees
because it works well for citrus and requires less skill than other
types of grafting.
• There are different types of budding, but those most commonly used
for citrus in Florida are the inverted T bud and the chip bud (hanging
bud).
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 Citrus Seed
• Citrus rootstock seeds are usually poly embryonic and produce nucellar
embryos, which are derived from the maternal tissue (the nucellus) that
surrounds the embryo sac.
• This phenomenon is essential for rootstock production, as seedlings
derived from nucellar embryos will be genetically identical to the
mother plant.
• In few cases, seedlings will grow from the zygotic embryo of the seed.
• These plants are called “off types” and must be rogued, as they are often
inferior in growth and genetically different.
• While seeds removed from citrus fruits will grow into trees and
eventually produce fruit, fruit production usually does not occur for
many years due to juvenility.
• Fruit produced from most citrus cultivars used as rootstocks are
generally not edible and only used for the purpose of propagation.
• Seeds are sown immediately after extraction in Citrus fruit
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 Budding
• Bud wood for budding the desired scion cultivar to the rootstock
must be obtained from healthy and DPI (Department of Plant
Industry)-certified, disease-free bud wood source trees.
• Budding is usually done when seedling stems are 1/4 to 3/8 inch
in diameter (about the diameter of a pencil).
• Budding can be done anytime the rootstock is in a condition of
active growth and the bark is slipping (the bark separates easily
from the wood underneath),
• It is important to keep the stock plants (the rootstock liners) well-
watered and fertilized prior to budding.
• The area to be budded should be pruned clean of thorns and twigs.
• The preferred budding height is 6–8 inches above the base of the
stem.
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 Selection of Bud wood
• Bud wood is usually collected from twigs from the
next to last growth flush (the wood behind the
current growth flush) or from the current growth
flush after it has begun to harden or mature.
• Bud wood should be round and not too angular (as
is often the case for young wood), relatively
straight, and should have well-formed buds in the
leaf axils.
• Whenever possible, bud wood should be
approximately the same diameter as the rootstock
stem to be budded.
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 Cont....

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 Budding Tools
• The most important tool for successful budding is a razor-sharp
budding knife, which can be purchased at specialty stores or at
garden supply stores (Figure).
• A smooth, clean cut is necessary to allow for a smooth contact
between the scion and rootstock during the healing process.
• In addition, sharpening stone and honing oil are needed to
prevent the blade from becoming dull with use.
• The purchase of a diamond sharpening stone will eliminate the
need for use of oil.
• Polyethylene budding tape (available in clear or green) is used to
wrap buds to prevent drying and promote bud union formation.
• Using clear tape allows for observation of the bud union during
the healing process.
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Budding tools. From left to right: budding tape,
hand pruner, budding knives. Bottom:
sharpening stone.

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 T - Budding
• T budding is a relatively simple procedure and
is recommended over chip budding, which
requires more expertise.
• Most Florida citrus trees are propagated by the
inverted T bud procedure, but the standard
(upright) T bud is also suitable.
• T budding can be conducted whenever the
rootstock plant has attained suitable size, its
bark is slipping, and bud wood is available.

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 Cont...

• Before making any incision to stock or bud wood,

the blade of the budding knife should be disinfected
to avoid transmission of any disease agent.
• Using the budding knife, a vertical cut of about 1.0–
1.5 inch in length is made completely through the
bark in a smooth area of the rootstock stem.
• A horizontal cut is made through the bark at the
bottom (inverted T) or top (regular T) of the vertical
cut.
• The cut is made at a slightly upward angle, again
cutting completely through the bark.
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 Inverted T cut (left), cutting a bud (right).

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 Cont...

• The bud should be immediately inserted into

the stock; the cut surface of the bud should not
be allowed to dry.
• Slide the bud shield (the bud with associated
bark and wood) under the bark flaps of the
rootstock with the cut surface flat against the
wood of the rootstock plant.
• The bud shield should be completely enclosed
in the T incision (Figure ).

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Inserting the bud (left) and wrapping the bud (right).

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 Chip Budding
• Chip budding requires slightly more skill than T
budding and is usually done whenever the bark of
the rootstock plant is not slipping or has become
too thick to T bud.
• The chip bud is cut while holding the bud stick
with the apical end toward the budder.
• A thin slice of wood with a scion bud is removed
by making a smooth upward cut about 1 inch long
and just into the wood.

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 Chip budding.

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 Other Propagation Methods for Citrus
Grafting
• Grafting procedures other than budding
involve the use of a scion with two or more
buds.
• There are numerous types of grafts, including
whip, cleft, bridge, in-arch, stump, side, inlay
bark, approach, and others. Grafting is most
commonly used to repair existing trees or to
top-work existing trees to change varieties.

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 Top-Working
• Top-working is the process of changing the top of an
established tree from one cultivar to another, or to multiple
cultivars, by budding or grafting.
• Several procedures may be used when top-working citrus
trees.
• They include bark grafting, cleft grafting, and T budding.
• To top-work a citrus tree by T budding, prune the tree back
to leave only a few branches of 2-5 inch diameter or smaller.
• Insert 1–3 buds on the upper side of the remaining scaffold
limbs using the T bud method.
• Remove unwanted buds and sprouts to insure that only the
desired scion buds grow.

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 Top-worked trees.

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 Cuttings

• Presently, nurseries are experiencing a shortage of seeds for some of

the popular rootstock varieties, and vegetative propagation methods
are required to produce large numbers of genetically identical
plants.
• One method that is popular, especially with citrus rootstock
breeders who usually do not have seed source trees available for
their new selection, is the propagation of rootstocks through
cuttings.
• For this method, single node cuttings, about 1 inch in length, are
removed from woody sections of 2–5 month-old branches of
certified disease-free citrus plants.
• The leaf remains attached to the node to allow photosynthates to be
delivered to the developing roots, but can be reduced to a length of
20–30% of its original size.

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 Rootstock cuttings.

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 Tissue Culture (Micro propagation)

• Advances in methods for vegetative propagation of

citrus rootstocks through tissue culture (micro
propagation) have now made it possible to
economically produce large numbers of genetically
identical plants from rootstock selections.
• The starting material for establishing micro
propagated plants varies depending on the
preference of the nursery, and can consist of
nucellar embryos or buds, both of which must be
derived from disease-free foundation trees.

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 3.4. Cultivars
• The citrus fruit family includes clementine, grapefruit, kumquats,
lemons, limes, mandarins, tangerines, tangelos, oranges and
satsumas.
• Clementine: the clementine is a seedless mandarin.
• It can be juiced or eaten raw as a snack.
• Grapefruit: the grapefruit has a pale yellow skin and is slightly
larger than an orange.
• Its flesh can be either pink or white with a slightly bitter flavour.
• They can be juiced, eaten raw or made into marmalade.
• Kumquat: the kumquat is not technically a citrus fruit.
• It comes from a similar fruit family, called fortunella.
• It looks like small orange and has an edible skin and a tart, citrus
flavour.
• It can be made into a relish or used as a garnish.
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 Cont...
• Lemon: the lemon is a bright yellow oblong fruit roughly the same size
of an orange.
• It has a tangy, sour flavour and is used in cooking to add a kick to many
dishes.
• It can also be used as an ingredient in lemon curd.
• Lime: the lime is a small, lemon-shaped green fruit with a tangy, sweet
flavour.
• It is used in a lot of Indian and Thai cooking, and can be sliced and
added to drinks.
• Mandarin: the mandarin is a type of small orange.
• It has loose skin and seeds inside.
• A seedless version of the mandarin is the clementine.
• Oranges: there are several different types of oranges.
• These include: Washington navel, Valencia, Hamlin, Pineapple, Tangelo
and blood oranges.
• They can be eaten raw as a snack, juiced, made into marmalade, or used
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as an ingredient in cakes.
 Cont....
• Navel orange: the navel orange is often considered to be the tastiest
eating orange in the world. It has a meaty flesh with easy-to-peel
thick rinds and no seeds.
• Valencia orange: the Valencia or Murcia orange is a very sweet
orange that's normally used for juicing.
• Blood orange: the blood orange is darker and more bitter than
regular oranges, and has streaks of red in the fruit.
• Its juice is a dark burgundy colour.
• Tangelo: the tangelo is a cross between a tangerine, a grapefruit and
an orange. It can be caramelised and added to salads, made into
marmalade or served with fish.
• Satsumas: the satsuma is similar to a clementine but is has tighter
skin. It is normally eaten on its own as a snack, but can also be juiced.
• Tangerines: the tangerine is an orange-red mandarin with a very
citrus taste.
• It05/27/2023
is great for juicing andCompiled
is also eaten raw as a snack.
by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 154
 CHAPTER 4.
MAJOR TROPICAL FRUITS & NUTS
• 11 A,B,C,C,D,G,M,M,O,P,P
• The fruits and nuts form a large and diverse
commodity group.
• Arbitrary decisions had to be made regarding
the species to be included; it is not possible to
define the edible fruits and nuts in a way that
clearly sets them apart from species in other
commodity groups.
• This volume deals with perennial species which
are primarily grown for their edible fruit - fleshy
or dry - which, as a rule, is consumed raw.
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 Cont...

• Annuals (tomato, melon) and species with fruit which is

not usually consumed raw (e.g. Moringa oleifera Lamk)
are included under the vegetables.
• A number of herbaceous (e.g. Hornstedtia spp.) and
woody (e.g. Ochrosia akkeringae (Teysm. & Binnend.)
Miq. and Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh.) perennials
are grown primarily for the seed, which is consumed raw
or - more often - roasted or boiled.
• These species have been treated as edible fruits and nuts in
so far as they are not covered by other commodity groups
such as the dye and tannin producing plants (e.g. Bixa
orellana L.) or the pulses (e.g. Padbruggea dasyphylla
Miq.).

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The many ways in which fruits and fruit trees are used

• Fruits and nuts are consumed because they are tasty and
healthy.
• Fruits mainly contribute vitamins and minerals to balance
the diet.
• This contribution is comparable to that of vegetables, the
main difference being that fruit is more often consumed raw,
precluding loss of vitamins through boiling, etc.
• Some fruits, nuts and seeds are rich in protein and/or energy.
• Banana and breadfruit form part of the staple diet in certain
areas, and the same applies to jackfruit, durian and avocado
in their season.

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 Growth and development
• It has been argued that low productivity limits the
role of tropical fruits and nuts.
• Growth and development determine productivity.
• A better understanding of how fruits and nuts
function will reveal whether yield potential is much
higher than the actual yield or not.
• Very little is known about growth and development
of most species.
• There is a striking discrepancy between the
botanical description of every plant part in the
articles in this volume, and the lack of information
on the dynamics of growth and development, in
particular on tree Compiled
05/27/2023 phenology.
by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW 158
 4.1. Avocado

• Avocado might become Ethiopia’s major export

product
• The joint program by USAID, MASHAV of
Israel and the Ministry of Agriculture of Ethiopia
has introduced over 2,000 farmers with the Hass
avocado variety, imported from Israel.
• The program over the past four years has
managed to export Hass from Ethiopia and find
the results encouraging and worth expanding.
• Avocado fruit is commonly known as “Fruit of
New World”
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 Avocado

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 Varieties

• All three horticultural races adapted to tropical and

sub-tropical conditions i.e. West Indian,
Guatemalan and Mexican have been tried in India.
• The cultivars of West Indian race are grown in
localized pockets in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka.
• In tropical and near-tropical areas, only West
Indian race is well-adapted but its hybrids with
Guatemalan (e.g. Booth selection) perform well
and are considered valuable for extending the
harvest season.

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 The characteristics of the major avocado
races are:
• a) Mexican race: Small (250 g) fruit type, ripening 6 to 8 months
after flowering. Fruits have thin smooth skin with a large seed fitting
loosely in the central cavity. Oil content is up to 30 per cent in the
fruits. Trees of this race are cold hardy.
• b) Guatemalan race: Fruits fairly large, weighing up to 600 g and
borne on long stalks. The fruits ripen 9-12 months after flowering.
Fruit skin is thick and often warty. Seeds, held tightly in the hollow
of the fruit, are small. The oil content in fruits ranges between 8 and
15 per cent.
• c) West Indian race: Fruit medium in size and the fruit skin smooth,
leathery and glossy. Fruits are borne on long stalks and require up to
9 months for ripening from the date of flowering. Its seeds are large,
fitting loosely in the cavity. The oil content of the fruit is low (3-10
per cent). This race is suitable for warm tropical climates.
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 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF
ORCHARDS
• Pruning is rarely practiced except with upright varieties such
as Pollock.
• In spreading varieties like Fuerte, branches are thinned and
shortened.
• Heavy pruning has been found to promote excessive
vegetative growth, consequently reducing the yield.
• Sprinkler irrigation has been reported to improve the fruit size
and oil percentage; also, it advances harvesting time.
• Irrigation at intervals of three to four weeks during the dry
months is beneficial to avocado.
• To avoid moisture stress during winter season, mulching with
dry grass/dry leaves is desirable.
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 FRUIT HARVESTING AND YIELDS
• Avocado plants raised from seeds start bearing
five to six years after planting.
• Mature fruits of purple varieties change their
colour from purple to maroon, whereas fruits of
green varieties become greenish-yellow.
• Fruits are ready for harvest when the colour of
seed coat within the fruit changes from yellowish
white to dark brown.
• Mature fruits ripen six to ten days after harvesting.
• The fruits remain hard as long as they stay on the
trees, softening only after harvest.
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 POST-HARVEST HANDLING,
STORAGE AND MARKETING
• Avocados do not ripen on the tree, and fruits soften
only after they are picked. Fruits need to be picked
carefully.
• They should be harvested at the correct stage of
maturity, when they are still hard and have a minimum
oil content of 12 per cent.
• In India, fruits of 250 to 300 grams in size are
preferred.
• Most popular varieties are Hass, Fuerte and Green.
• Hard, mature fruits are harvested and allowed to ripen
during transport and
05/27/2023
distribution.
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 Planting and growing avocados
• Setting up a profitable avocado orchard requires careful planning and the
right site.
• Use these guidelines to determine if your property has the right land and
climate for growing avocados.
Pollination
• If you want to grow an avocado tree as a specimen plant without regard to
fruit production, then you may plant a single avocado tree. If, however,
you want to harvest your own avocado fruits, then more than one avocado
tree must be planted.
• An avocado tree needs to cross-pollinate with another variety of avocado
tree for optimal fruit set. Although avocado flowers have both male and
female flower parts, each part functions at a different time during the day.
• Avocado trees are grouped into Type A and Type B, depending on the
time of day their male and female flower parts are reproductively viable.
• Planting a Type A tree and a Type B tree increases successful pollination
if enough insect pollinators, such as bees, are present.
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 Climate
• Frost-free areas are preferred, but mature trees
will tolerate temperatures as low as -4°C for short
periods without damage unless flower buds,
flowers or fruit are present.
• Trees can also tolerate temperatures as high as
40°C for short periods, however fruit damage and
losses can be expected.
• Growers in hot areas use overhead sprinklers
(assuming good quality water is available) for
evaporative cooling to preserve the crop during
heat waves.
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 Tree spacing

• Tree spacing depends on whether you opt for high, medium or

low-density plantings.
• High-density plantings (more than about 500 trees/ha, e.g. 6m
by 3m) give earlier returns, but cost more to set up. Because
these plantings crowd together much sooner, you need to start
pruning trees earlier. In warmer areas high-density plantings
will be more difficult to manage and may be impractical
because tree growth is faster.
• Low-density plantings (200 trees or less/ha, e.g. 10m by 5m)
provide lower early returns per unit area but are easier to
manage. However at low-density, trees are generally allowed to
grow larger which will:
– increase picking costs
– reduce picker safety
– produce less fruit and of lower quality.
• As a compromise, you
05/27/2023 canby:choose
Compiled medium-density spacings
GETACHEW ASAMENEW 168
 Pruning
• Without canopy management, yield and fruit
quality will deteriorate and trees will become
more physically difficult to spray and harvest.
• The type of canopy management practice will
depend on tree density and the growth habit of
the variety.
• The aim of canopy management is to:
- keep trees to a practical size
- allow sunlight into the canopy to
encourage flowering and fruit set
- rejuvenate the branches to keep them
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productive.
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 Irrigation

• Maintain an adequate water supply to the trees

throughout the year, not only for meeting
moisture requirements, but also for effective
uptake of nutrients.
• It’s essential for avocado trees to have well-
aerated soil;
- they cannot tolerate heavy or waterlogged
soil,
- so it’s important to monitor the trees and
soil as part of your irrigation process.

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 4.2. Banana
• Banana is a globally important fruit crop with 97.5 million
tones of production.
• In India it supports livelihood of million of people.
• With total annual production of 16.91 million tones from
490.70 thousand ha., with national average of 33.5 T/ha.
• Banana contributes 37% to total fruit production in India.
• Banana occupy 20% area among the total area under crop in
India.
• Most of Banana is grown by planting suckers.
• The technology development in agriculture is very fast, it
results in developing Tissue Culture Technique.
• The fruit of banana is botanically a Berry.
• Banana is called micronutrient loving crop
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 Banana

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 Varieties

• In India banana is grown under diverse

conditions and production systems.
• Selection of varieties, therefore is based on a
large number of varieties catering to various
kinds of needs and situations.
• However, around 20 cultivars.
• Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Monthan, Poovan,
Nendran, Red banana, Nyali, Safed Velchi,
Basarai, Ardhapuri, Rasthali, Karpurvalli,
Karthali and Grandnaine etc..
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 Cont....

• Grandnaine is gaining popularity and may

soon be the most preferred variety due to its
tolerance to biotic stresses and good quality
bunches.
• Bunches have well spaced hands with straight
orientation of figures, bigger in size.
• Fruit develops attractive uniform yellow
colour with better self life & quality than other
cultivars.

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 Planting materials used for banana

Peeper

Sword
sucker
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 Traditionally, suckers or corms are used

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 .

Maiden
sucker

Water
suckers
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 If well managed and taken care of, in-vitro
propagated plants will most likely give:

• healthier, faster growing crop

• higher yield
• turn out to be more profitable than the
conventional suckers or corms

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 Planting
Preparation of land:

• Plough the land thoroughly atleast for 3-4

times and add about 10 tonnes of well rotten
FYM or Compost during last plough and mix
it well or add 10-15 kg FYM/ Compost per pit
of 60x60x60 cm dimension.

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 Selection of Suckers:
• Select ‘Sword Suckers’ with broad corm with narrow
sword like leaves, from viral, fungal and bacterial disease
free mother plants.
• The suckers should be 3-5 months old, uniform in size,
weighing 1-1.5 kg for Nendran, Rasthali, Ney Poovan and
Poovan Banana varieties.
• For long duration varieties like Karpuravalli and Red
Banana, slightly big suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should be
used.
• For planting of ‘Tissue Culture’ plants, the secondary
hardened plant should be about 30 cm tall, 5 cm girth with
atleast five fully opened healthy leaves and true to type.
• Choke throat in banana is due to low temperature.
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 Sucker Treatment and planting:
• The selected suckers should be ‘pared’ by trimming of
all the roots along with surface layers superficially to
remove any rotten portion of the corm.
• Dip the pared suckers in 0.2% Carbendazim (2g/litre
of water) solution for about 15 –20 minutes as a
prophylactic measure against Fusarium wilt disease.
• Keep the treated suckers in shade overnight before
planting.
• Plant the suckers in the center of the pit and press the
soil around the suckers firmly.
• Apply 40 g of Carbofuron granules per pit to protect
the plants against nematode attack and irrigate the
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 Harvesting
• Banana should be harvested at the physiological
maturity stage for better post harvest quality.
• The fruit is climacteric and can reach consumption
stage after ripening operation
Maturity indices
• These are established on the basis of fruit shape,
angularity, grade or diameter of the median figure of
the second hand, starch content and number of days
that have elapsed after flowering.
• Market preferences can also affect the decision for
harvesting a slight or full mature fruit.

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 4.3. Cashew

• Cashew as a marketable commodity has a very important role

to play in the liberalized Indian economy.
• With export earnings of Rs. 12,320 million in 1995-96, cashew
ranked as one of the top agricultural export commodities.
• From the farmers’ as well as from the exporters’ point of view,
the current emphasis that cashew is receiving as a horticultural
crop from the research and development front, is a welcome
sign.
• At present, India has a processing capacity of nearly seven
hundred thousand metric tons and to meet the raw nut demand,
the country depends partially on imports from several African,
and in recent years, from south-east Asian countries.

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 Cashew

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 Areas of Production

• Cashew is grown in the western and eastern coastal areas

and further inland in some parts of Karnataka and Madhya
Pradesh.
• Currently, the area under cashew is around 634,900 ha
with a total production of 417,000 tons (Table 1).
• With 118,000 ha and a production of 140,000 tons, Kerala
accounts for 18.6 % of the area and 33.5 % of production
respectively.
• The highest productivity is observed in Kerala and
Maharashtra with over one ton per ha.
• The high yields in Maharashtra are primarily due to the
fact that cashew production is of recent origin and the
major part of the plantations have been established with
high yielding clonalCompiled
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 Varieties

• Thirty-three cultivars have been released so far

by the National Research Center as well as
several Agricultural Universities.
• Most of the varieties have a mean yield of 8-
10 kg per tree which gives over one ton per ha.
• In view of the export potential however,
cultivation is recommended only for such
cultivars that have a kernel grade of W-210 to
W-240 (210-240 kernels per lb).

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 PROPAGATION AND PRODUCTION
OF PLANTING MATERIAL
• A number of propagation methods have been tested
for the multiplication of cashew.
• Air-layering was found to be one of the popular
methods among growers.
• This technique however, produced trees with poor
anchorage as the root density was found to be low.
• It also resulted in poor field establishment and high
susceptibility to cyclones and drought conditions.
• Air layering was therefore found to be unsuitable
for commercial exploitation.
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 Spacing and Planting Systems

• A spacing of 7.5m x 7.5m or 8m x 8m is recommended for

cashew which gives a tree density of 175 and 156 trees per
ha, respectively.
• High density planting at 4m x 4m giving a tree density of
625 trees per ha in the initial years and subsequently
thinning in stages to reach a final spacing of 8m x 8m is
also practiced in some areas.
• This enables higher returns during the initial years and as
the canopies grow in volume, alternate trees are removed
to achieve the desired final spacing.
• In level sites however, it would be advantageous to plant
cashew at a spacing of 10m x 5m which will give a tree
density of 200 trees per ha and at the same time providing
sufficient space for growers to plant inter-crops during the
initial years of establishment.
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 Planting of Cashew

• Pits are usually dug at the onset of the pre-monsoon rains

to a size of 60cm x 60cm x 60cm in light to medium soils.
• If a hard substrate like laterite is present pits may be 1m x
1m to compensate for the lesser depth of soil.
• It is preferable to dig pits 15-20 days before planting to
expose planting holes to direct sunlight which can help
remove termites and other harmful insects that can damage
young plants, if present.
• When filling, top soil mixed with compost (5 kg) or
poultry manure (2 kg) and 200g of rock phosphate are
placed in the pits.
• Contour planting is usually followed in sloping areas.
• Standard conservation measures need to be followed on
steep lands when establishing
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 MANAGEMENT AND AFTERCARE
OF CASHEW ORCHARDS
Terracing and Bunding
• In the western and eastern coastal areas cashew is grown
mostly on sloping land.
• A considerable amount of nutrient leaching and soil erosion
are common in such situations.
• Growers have been advised to construct terraces and contour
pits to conserve runoff water.
• Studies on the extent of root distribution revealed that 90
percent of the root system was confined to a radius of 2m
and a depth of 1 m.
• In order to achieve maximum utilization of applied nutrients,
fertilizer practices were confined to this part of the root zone.
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HARVESTING OF NUTS AND CASHEW
YIELDS

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 HARVESTING OF NUTS AND CASHEW YIELDS

• Bearing commences after the third year of planting

and the trees will be in full production by the tenth
year whilst the economic life of a tree is about 20
years.
• The main harvesting season is from February to
May.
• Most farmers harvest their crop before they drop to
prevent pilferage.
• This very often results in poor quality of the
kernels.
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 4.4. Coconut

1. Introduction
• Coconut (Cocos nucifera) plays a significant
role in the agrarian economy of India.
• Apart from the importance of copra and coconut
oil which is widely used in the manufacture of
soaps, hair oil, cosmetics and other industrial
products, its husk is a source of fiber which
supports a sizable coir industry.
• The tender nut supplies coconut water, a
popular thirst quencher of health and hygienic
value.
• Virgin coconut oil (VCO), extracted from fresh
coconut kernel without any chemical processes
is abundant in vitamins, minerals and anti-
oxidants, thus making it the 'mother of all oils.
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 Coconut

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 2. Scope for Coconut Cultivation and its
National Importance
• Coconut is grown in more than 93 countries of
the world and Indonesia, Philippines, India are
the major producing countries of the world.
• Coconut is grown in more than 18.95 ha in the
country with an estimated 16943 million nuts
during 2010-11 with an average productivity of
8937 nuts per ha.
• Traditional areas of coconut in India are the
states of Kerala, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Goa, West Bengal, Pondicherry,
Maharashtra and Islands of Lakshadweep and
Andaman and Nicobar.
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 4.5. Date

Description
• The date is an erect palm to 100 or 120 ft (30.5-
36.5 m), the trunk clothed from the ground up
with upward-pointing, overlapping, persistent,
woody leaf bases.
• After the first 6 to 16 years, numerous suckers
will arise around its base.
• Vegetative propagation of date palm is through
Suckers.
• The feather-like leaves, up to 20 ft (6 m) long,
are composed of a spiny petiole, a stout midrib,
and slender, gray-green or bluish-green pinnae 8
to 16 in (20-40 cm) long, and folded in half
lengthwise.
• Each leaf emerges from a sheath that splits into a
network of fibers remaining at the leaf base.
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 .

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 Date tree

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 .
• .

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 Origin and Distribution

• The date palm is believed to have originated in the lands

around the Persian Gulf and in ancient times was especially
abundant between the Nile and Euphrates rivers.
• Alphonse de Candolle claimed that it ranged in prehistoric
times from Senegal to the basin of the Indus River in
northern India, especially between latitudes 15 and 30.
• There is archeological evidence of cultivation in eastern
Arabia in 4,000 B.C.
• It was much revered and regarded as a symbol of fertility,
and depicted in bas relief and on coins.
• Literature devoted to its history and romance is voluminous.
• Nomads planted the date at oases in the deserts and Arabs
introduced it into Spain.
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 Propagation

• Date palms grow readily from seeds if the seeds

and seedlings are kept constantly wet.
• But seedlings are variable and take 6 to 10 years
to fruit.
• Furthermore, 50% of the seedlings may turn out
to be males.
• The best and common means of propagation is
by transplanting the suckers, or offshoots
when they are 3 to 5 years old and weigh 40 to
75 lbs (18-34 kg).
• They are usually separated from the parent palm
as needed, but in southern Algeria suckers are
often put on sale standing in tubs of water.

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 4.6. Guava

• Guava (Psidium guajava), the

apple of tropics, is one of the
most common fruits.
• It is the fourth most important
fruit in area and production
after mango, banana and
citrus.
• Being hardy, it gives an
assured crop even with little
care, and is good for rainfed
areas also.
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 Guava

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 Ideal Climate and Soil for Guava Cultivation
• Successful Guava cultivation is grown under tropical and
sub-tropical climate.
• In areas with distinct winter season, the yield tends to
increase and quality improves.
• It can be grown up to an altitude of 1515 m above mean sea
level.
• Older plants can tolerate drought.
• High temperature at the time of fruit development can cause
fruit drop.
• Guava trees are very hardy and can thrive on all types of
soils, but are sensitive to water logging.
• The best soils for guava cultivation are deep, loamy and well
drained.
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 Guava Cultivars

Allahabad Safeda
• The fruits are large in size, round in shape, smooth
skinned and yellowish white.
• The flesh is white, firm, soft having pleasant flavor,
high soluble solids and vitamin C content.
• It can withstand drought conditions.
• Its fruits are large, roundish, ovate in shape, skin
primrose, yellow and white pulp, very sweet and
tasty.
• The total soluble solids and vitamin C are high.
• Plant is vigorous.
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 Guava Planting

• The guava planting should be

done in pits of 1m x 1m x 1m
size filled with mixture of
FYM and soil during rainy
season (July-August) or in
spring (February-March) at a
distance of 6 m x 6 m.
• Bending is practice in guava
to encourage Better fruiting.

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 Propagation and Rootstock of Guava

• Guava plants grown directly from seed give poor

fruit yield and quality, and come into bearing late.
• Seeds should be used for rootstock raising.
• Subsequently, inarching or budding (patch or
shield) can be done for propagation.
• In recent times, stooling has been found cheapest
and easiest method of propagation.
• As seeds loose viability after extraction, they
should be sown immediately.
• Soaking of seeds in water for 12 hours gives about
90 per cent germination.
• Time of guava propagation is Feb-March and July-
August.
• Guava can also be successfully propagated by air
layering.
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 Propagation by Seed

• The seed propagation is now limited to raising the rootstock

materials.
• Guava seeds for commercial use are normally considered
waste.
• Its use for propagation is limited to breeding plan or
multiplication of rootstocks for scion varieties.
• In some countries where modern technology is not used,
guava is still propagated with seeds.
• Plantlets made from seeds are called seedlings.
• This is the simplest technique for the propagation of guava
trees.
• The disadvantage is the use of seeds in plants has great
variability.
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 Propagation by Vegetative Method

• Traditional asexual propagation

techniques have been hampered due
to juvenile phase of longer duration,
season reliance, long life span, and
increased plant propagation
material.
• The mound and air layering are
also used as a multiplication method
in various countries.

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 Cutting Stem Cutting

• The propagation via stem cuttings was not very significant in older
days.
• Recently, this method has become popular.
• September to March is the appropriate time for the preparation of
cuttings (southern hemisphere), when the plants are in full growth.
• One can use stem of all kinds to make cuttings and have young
leaves that grow actively.
• Cuttings must have three internodes and four nodes.
• Due to the length of the internodes, the size of the cuttings can be
reduced to ensure that only one node will be immersed in rooting
media.

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 Root Cutting

• Webber (1944) pointed out that “adopting root cutting in

colder regions such as California was the main
advantage, as well as the prospect of propagating guava
plants by cuttings.
• Because of the intense cold that caused the freezing and
death of trees in orchards, it was likely to use new
shoots from the root system to propagate new plant
without a graft because the root system is genetically
identical to the stem.
• It has been used effectively in the past.
• The roots are cut about 0.5-1 m from the trunk of a
mature tree.”
• The shoots that grow during root cutting are removed
with their roots and planted
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in 5-liter plastic bags.
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 Budding
• Various budding techniques were
developed from the buds of green
shoots in guava seedlings (5 mm in
diameter) have been tried, such as
patch, chip, etc. in guava with
different degrees of success.
• Sohnika et al. (2015) reported that
the patch budding from August 15th
to 21st showed the highest success
rate (92.07%) observed after 90 days
of guava propagation.
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 Cont...

• Patch-budding is used for

thicker barked trees, especially
walnut and pecan.
• Here a patch of bark is removed
and a same-sized patch with the
bud is inserted in its place.
• Patch budding is normally
done during the growing season
when the bark separates readily
from the wood along the cambial
layer.

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 Grafting
• Apical stem branches is used to perform the
grafting, this should be 3 or 4 months old.
• “The shoot should be made with 3-4 buds,
15-18cm long and 8mm in diameter.
• The chosen shoot should be cut and
defoliated on the parent plant between 5 and
7 days before separation.
• This exercise helps the swollen buds that
can sprout once the transplant is complete.
• This is considered necessary for successful
grafting”.

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 Micro propagation
• The expansion of clonal propagation in vitro can
facilitate rapid clonal propagation.
• However, its profitability must be addressed in time of
energy crisis.
• Other aspects of guava cultivation, such as wilt disease,
fruit flies, shorter shelf life and increased sensitivity to a
biotic stress such as frost, must be taken into account.
• Tools for molecular biology such as marker-based
selection, genetic alteration for stress tolerance,
genomics use, molecular physiology and bioinformatics
can be used to understand plant physiology in plants
better with changing weather conditions and
development of resistant varieties. (Ali et al., 2007).
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 Training and Pruning
• The plant should be trained to a low-headed
system of open centre or delayed open centre
keeping scaffold limbs having wide crotch
angles.
• Pruning is not generally required every year,
however, terminal shoots may be headed back
to stop overcrowding of trees.
• Leaf bronzing in guava is due to Fe toxicity.

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 Guava Harvesting and Yield

• In guava cultivation, grafted plants come into

bearing at the age of 3 years and peak
harvesting periods are August-September for
rainy season crop and Jan-Feb. for winter season
crop.
• Guava develops best flavour and aroma only
when they ripe on tree.
• A ten year old guava tree gives a yield, up to
100 kg of fruit.
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 4.7. Macadamia nut

Introduction to growing and processing macadamias

History
• It is not widely known that the macadamia nut has its
origins in Australia, however our ‘Australian Bush
Nut’ was first discovered by Allan Cunningham in
1828.
• It wasn’t until the late 1880s that serious cultivation
of these evergreen trees began.
• The early 1900s marked the beginning of an exciting
new industry, when a group of American
horticulturists transported some macadamia seeds to
Hawaii and began growing and grafting selections of
these nuts to develop today’s agricultural success
story.

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 Macadamia

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 Growing Macadamias

• Macadamia trees grow best in sub-tropical climates – the

typical climate they have grown in for thousands of years.
• Most varieties start to bear commercially viable yields at 7
years of age, with trees taking approximately 12 years to
reach full maturity and maximum yields of nut-in-shell.
• With careful management, trees can continue to yield well
for many years.
• In fact some of the earliest orchards planted in the 1960’s
still continue to bear well today.

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 Harvesting and Processing

• Macadamia nuts are allowed to fall to the ground naturally.

• In some countries the nuts are harvested by hand but in
Australia modern machinery is used to gather the nuts.
• Harvesters drive down the tree rows with the nuts getting
picked up in the finger like wheels.
• After harvesting, the soft outer husk is then removed on the
farm before the nuts are placed in storage awaiting delivery
to the processing plant.
• The hard, round, nut-in-shell is transported to the factory
where they are weighed and samples from each delivery are
analyzed by the laboratory for quality and moisture content.
• Nuts are placed into a drying system under carefully
controlled conditions where they are dried down from 15 –
20% moisture to 3.5% moisture content – in preparation for
cracking.
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 4.8. Mango

• Chromosome number of Mango is 4x = 40.

• Mango trees are deep-rooted, symmetrical evergreens that attain heights
of 90 feet and widths of 80 feet.
• Mango trees have simple alternate lanceolate leaves that are 12 to 16
inches in length and yellow-green, purple, or copper in color when
young.
• Mature leaves are leathery, glossy, and deep green in color.
• New leaves arise in terminal growth flushes that occur several times a
year.
• Mature terminal branches bear pyramidal flower panicles that have
several hundred white flowers that are about a 1/4 inch wide when open.
• “King of Fruits” is called Mango.
• Pollination in Mango is mainly by House fly.

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 Mango

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 VARIETIES
• ‘Ah Ping’, ‘Fairchild’, ‘Gouveia’, ‘Harders’, ‘Keitt’, ‘Momi K’,
‘Pope’, and ‘Rapoza’ are recommended mango varieties for Hawaii.
• All the listed varieties are productive and have superior quality fruit.
• They have less pronounced alternate-year bearing qualities than the
more common ‘Haden’ and ‘Pirie’ varieties.
• All these varieties, including ‘Haden’ and ‘Pirie’, are
monoembryonic and do not come true from seed.
• Flowering occurs from December to April, but offseason flowering
is common, resulting in variable harvest times.
• ‘Fairchild’ is considered somewhat resistant to anthracnose and is
favored for humid areas.
• Famous variety of mango for pickle use is Ramkela.

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 USES
• Mango can be eaten raw as a dessert fruit or processed to
various products.
• Ripe fruits can be sliced and canned or processed to juice,
jams, jellies, nectars and preserves.
• Eastern and Asian cultures use unripe mangos for pickles,
chutney and relishes.
• Mango Fruit is rich source of Vitamin A.
• In India, unripe mangos are sliced, dried, and made into
powder for amchoor, a traditional Indian preparation used
for cooking.
• In India, flour is made from mango seeds.
• Seeds are also eaten during periods of food shortages.

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 PROPAGATION

• Monoembryonic mango varieties, like the varieties

recommended for Hawaii, have single embryos of
hybrid origin and do not produce true from seed.
• They are propagated by grafting onto seedling
rootstocks.
• Polyembryonic mango varieties, like the so-called
common or Hawaiian mango varieties, produce two
or more plants of nucellar (maternal) origin from
each seed.
• These plants are predominantly true to type, and may
be grown from seed without the necessity of grafting.

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 SOIL TYPES and LOCATION

• Mangos can be grown on a wide range of soil

types, from light sandy loams to red clay soils.
Soil pH of 5.5 to 7.5 is preferred.
• Deep rich soils give the best production and fruit
quality. Well drained soils are recommended.
• Moderately sloping sites are also recommended
to prevent water logging.
• Deep soils without impermeable layers permit
the development of deep taproots that aids in
drought tolerance and wind resistance.

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 CULTURAL PRACTICES

• Transplant container-grown plants promptly, before they

become pot-bound, to permit good root development.
• Avoid transplanting plants that are flushing.
• Treble superphosphate (0-45-0) fertilizer should be mixed
with the soil in the planting hole, but other fertilizers should
not be applied until after the plants recover from
transplanting shock.
• Mangos are large trees and should be planted 35 to 40 feet
apart.
• For increased early production, an extra tree may be planted
in the center of a 40-foot square to be removed later.
• Major cause of mango fruit drop are Lack of pollination, Low
stigmatic receptivity and Defective perfect flower.
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 HARVEST and POSTHARVEST

• Mango trees may remain in production for 40 years or more.

• Fruits are usually picked after they develop some red, orange, or
yellow color.
• Mangos will ripen and may be picked when the flesh inside has turned
yellow, regardless of exterior color.
• The harvest season is usually between June and September in Hawaii,
depending on variety.
• Fruit matures three to five months after flowering.
• Mangos should be picked before they are fully ripe, at which time they
soften and fall.
• The fruit bruises easily and must be handled carefully to avoid damage.
• They are ripened at room temperature and then refrigerated.
• Mature mangos keep fairly well under refrigeration for two to three
weeks at 50 to 55°F.

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 4.9. Olive
• Table olives and olive oil are, like wine,
associated with an element of mystique, yet
the successful cultivation of this crop
requires sufficient know-how.
• Unlike other fruit, olives cannot be eaten
fresh off the tree – a characteristic that has
both advantages and disadvantages.
• Table olives are processed by various
methods before they are edible, and the most
popular recipes are those that include
specific microbial fermentation.
• Olive oil, on the other hand, is at its best
when freshly extracted at ambient
temperature simply by mechanical means.
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 Olive

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 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
• The olive is traditionally grown in areas that have a climate
similar to the Mediterranean type, to which it is ideally adapted.
• Such regions are typified by relatively cool winters where frost
seldom occurs, hot dry summers and an average annual rainfall
of around 700 mm.
• Olive trees will also thrive under irrigation in drier areas.
• In summer-rainfall regions experiencing high humidity and
temperatures, pests and diseases are a problem.
• The olive requires sufficient winter chilling to enter rest so that
flower development is initiated, otherwise the tree remains
vegetative.

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 SOIL REQUIREMENTS
• Olive trees require well-drained, well-aerated soil that has been
prepared according to recommended guidelines to a depth of at
least 80 cm before planting.
• Production on shallower soils will be disappointing, while trees
planted in wet or waterlogged soils are susceptible to asphyxia
and diseases.
• Very sandy soils have poor water-retention capacity and will
require intensive management in terms of irrigation and
nutrition.
• Heavy clay soils (above 35% clay) are unsuitable, whereas stony
soils, especially with high gravel content, are ideal.
• Soil pH (measured in KCl) should be between 5.5 and 6.5.
• Irrigation is usually by means of drippers or micro-sprinklers,
and is a prerequisite for the regular production of high-quality
fruit.
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 CULTIVAR CHOICE
The choice of which cultivars to plant is determined by the
following:
• The market demand for the specific product (for example olive oil or
table olives), the type of processed products required (for example
black or green table olives), and the suitability of the cultivar to the
specific processing recipe.
• The adaptability of the cultivar to a specific region, especially
regarding production, resistance to pests, diseases and possible frost.
• The cross-pollination requirements of the cultivars, which can be
quite specific.
• The ripening period and harvest season of the cultivars relative to
other cultivars, other fruit kinds (where relevant) and other
management practices.
• The availability of planting material.

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 ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT
• It is recommended that olive trees be ordered from registered nurseries in the
year prior to planting.
• Trees are usually propagated by nurseries by means of cuttings (on own roots)
and supplied in planting bags.
• Those that are difficult to root from cuttings are sometimes grafted onto
rootstocks.
• There is very little information available locally on the performance of specific
rootstocks, but clonally rootstocks is preferred above seedlings because of the
variability of the latter.
• Trees should have healthy appearance, be 12 to 18 months old, at least 50 cm in
height, and should be planted in late winter or early spring in order to be
successfully established in the orchard.
• Planting distances will depend on circumstances, but traditionally trees are
spaced 2 m to 4 m apart in the row, and rows 4 m to 7 m apart.
• An alley width of 2 m is sufficient for normal orchard traffic.
• For mechanical harvesting by trunk shakers, alley width has to accommodate the
efficient operation of such machines.
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 HARVESTING AND FRUIT HANDLING
• Table olives are picked separately and carefully by hand and placed in
picking bags or buckets, while oil olives are usually stripped off the trees
onto nets placed on the ground.
• Harvest date depends on the cultivar and the purpose for which the fruit
is intended.
• Fruits intended for green processing are picked at the stage when they
have turned from bright green to yellow green, and the first fruit shows a
light pink or purple blush.
• Only fruits of the required size are harvested while the rest is left for
later picking.
• The fruit intended for processing as ripe black table olives are picked
when they have turned completely black, but before they become
overripe and soften.
• Oil olives are harvested when most of the fruit on a specific tree is ripe
enough, and then the entire crop on that tree is picked at once.
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 4.10. Papaya

• Papaya, papaw or papita (Carica papaya L.) originated from tropical

America, has become a popular fruit due to its fast growth, high yield, long
fruiting period and high nutrient value as well.
• In addition it has been use as vegetable, fruit processing, and papain
production at immature stage.
• It can be a highly profitable crop now.
• Papaya is a native of Tropical America
• The papaya plant has male, female, hermaphrodite (bisexual flower) and
some other complex forms.
• Male plants do not bear any fruit, normally the fruit shape from female plant
is shorter, but the fruit shape from hermaphrodite (bisexual flower) plant is
longer.
• “Pusa Nanha” dwarf variety of Papaya is developed through Mutation.
• Pink fleshed variety of Papaya is Sunrise solo.
• Pusa Majestic is a variety of Papaya.
• Carica cauliflora is Papaya species it is resistant to distortion ring-spot
virus.
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• .

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 I. Climate and soils

• Papaya is a tropical, plant, very sensitive to frost.

• Optimum temperature is 25 -30° C and minimum 16° C.
• The suitable PH value is between 6 and 6.5.
• The well-drained or sandy loam soil with adequate organic matter
is most important for the papaya cultivation.
• In high rainfall area, if drainage is poor and roots are continuously
soaking or drenched for 24 to 48 hours, it may cause the death of
the plants.
• Sticky and calcareous soils are not good as rain water may
accumulate in the soil even only for a few hours.
• In this case, higher raised bed and drainage ditch are recommended.
• Papaya being a tropical fruit grows well in the mild sub-tropical
regions of the country up to 1,000 m.
• Deep, well drained sandy loam soil is ideal for cultivation of
papaya.
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 II. Seedling production

A. Seed Source and varieties: The seed must be from

dependable source and sown as soon as possible.
B. Seed requirement:
• One gram contains about 50 - 80 seeds, mostly 65 -75 seeds.
• It needs 50 to 80 g seeds per hectare at one plant per hill
average of 80 % seed germination and 80% successful
seedlings.
C. Season:
• The time of sowing depends upon the choice of fruiting
season and danger of rain or frost.
D. Seed germination: 
• It takes 1 - 4 weeks from sowing to emerge depending on
the temperature.
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1. Plastic bag or soft plastic pot sowing:
• Transparent plastic bag in 8 - 9 cm wide and 8 cm wide and 8
cm high or black soft plastic pot is used for raising seedlings.
• Drainage hole is required.
• Then fill with the mixture of sandy loam virgin soil and
sand at the ratio3: 1.
• Sow 1 or 2 seeds each bag (pot) and cover with well
fermented compost, then water fully.
• Cover the bags (pots) with plastic film or thatch such as straw
sheets or used jute bags to keep warm and wet till emergence.
• Meanwhile, keep the air fresh and moist, and then remove the
cover gradually for fitting the seedling under the sun shine.

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 2. Seedling Tray sowing:
• The use of plastic seedling tray is new way of seedling
culture to obtain the healthy seedlings which are easily for
the transporting and transplanting.
• The Tray size may be 74 to 82 holes at 4.5 cm each in
diameter.
• Fill the prepare media in the holes, sow 1 to 2 seeds in
each hole, and cover the layer of media.
• Other procedures are similar to plastic bag (pot) sowing.
• For purposes of controlling aphid, viral infection, rain and
wing protection, and maintaining tolerable temperature
during seedling stage, it is required to use screen house,
greenhouse or tunnel covered with 0.07-0.10 mm plastic
film or 32 -mesh net.
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 III, TRANSPLANTING

A. Transplanting stage:
• When the seedling is 10 - 15 cm tall, it should be
transplanted, but 30 - 40 cm is also all right if it is grown in a
larger container.
B. Spacing: A spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m. is normally followed.
• However higher density cultivation with spacing of 1.5 x 1.5
m./ha enhances the returns to the farmer and is
recommended.
• A 40 - 60 cm high bed is required if the soil is not well
drained.
• High Density Planting :A closer spacing of 1.2 x 1.2 m. for
cv. Pusha Nanha is adopted for high density planting,
accommodating 6,400 plants/ha.
C. Pollinator Plants: Minimum10 - 20% hermaphrodite plants
are required for pollination
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 IV. Fertilization

• The plant needs continuous fertilization, as fruiting is

continuous upon maturity.
• Recommended rate of fertilizers for papaya is as
follows: (it should be modified depending upon the
soil conditions)
• Apart from the basal dose of manures (@ 10
kg./plant) applied in the pits, 200-250 g. each of N,
P2O5 and K2O are recommended for getting high
yield.
• Application of 200 g. N is optimum for fruit yield but
papain yield increases with increase in N up to 300 g.

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 V. Intercultural operations

• Deep hoeing is recommended during the first year to

check weed growth.
• Weeding should be done on regular basis especially
around the plants.
• Application of Fluchloralin or Alachlorin or
Butachlorine (2.0 g./ha.) as pre-emergence herbicide
two months after transplanting can effectively
control the weeds for a period of four months.
• Earthing up is done before or after the onset of
monsoon to avoid water-logging and also to help the
plants to stand erect.

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 VI. Irrigation

• Normally, irrigate every 15 days in winter or

10 days in summer, but practice varies
according to soil, climatic conditions, and
irrigation methods.
• Ring method, furrow or drip irrigation can be
done.
• However, be sure to prevent the water from
coming in contact with the stem.
• Irrigation may prevent the plants from the
damage of frost.

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 Harvest

• Fruits are harvested when they are of full size, light green in
colour with tinge of yellow at apical end.
• On ripening, fruits of certain varieties turn yellow while
some of them remain green.
• In Papaya papain contain 72.2% protein.
• When the latex ceases to be milky and become watery, the
fruits are suitable for harvesting.
• The economic life of papaya plant is only 3 to 4 years.
• The yield varies widely according to variety, soil, climate
and management of the orchard.
• The yield of 75-100 tonnes /ha. is obtained in a season from
a papaya orchard depending on spacing and cultural
practices.
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 4.11. Pineapple
Agronomy:
Agro-climatic suitability:
• The pineapple is a tropical or near-tropical plant.
• Origin of pineapple is Brazil.
• The optimum temperature for growth is 20ºC at
night and 30ºC during the day.
• The rate of growth and development, plant and fruit
size are directly related to temperature.
• During the cool season growth is delayed and night
temperatures below 10ºC can result in leaf necrosis.
• It will usually tolerate brief exposures to -2.2 °C
and cool nights for short periods.
• Prolonged cold above freezing retards growth,
delays maturity and causes the fruit to be more
acidic.
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 Pineapple

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 Field Planting:

• Before planting, the land should be well prepared at the

outset because the pineapple is shallow-rooted and easily
damaged by post-planting cultivation.
• Fumigation of the soil contributes to high quality and high
yields.
• Planting is normally staggered or side by side all the year
round to guarantee a regular supply of fruits to the market.
• On mineral soils and large estates, planting is semi-
mechanized with a worker sitting at the back of a tractor
and feeding seedlings into slots of a slow rotating disc that
makes the hole, pushing the seedlings in and tamping the
earth around the seedlings at the same time.

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Planting pattern “paired or double-row bed
system” 90 X 60 X 30 cm

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 Irrigation Requirements:

• The plant is surprisingly drought tolerant, but adequate soil

moisture is necessary for good fruit production and watering
should not exceed 2.5 cm semi-monthly. 
Fertilization:
• Fertilizer is the most important input accounting for about
30% of the total operating costs.
• The fertilizers are applied in the form of foliar sprays and as
well as ground broadcast of straight or compound fertilizers.
• Among the three major nutrients, nitrogen is required mostly
during the first five months of growth.
• Nitrogen is essential to increase fruit size and total yield,
which could be applied in the form of urea [CO(NH 2)2]
solution at every four months.

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  Flower and Fruit Induction:

• The pineapple fruit develops from the inflorescence

formed at the terminus of the plant.
• The early sign of inflorescence emergence is the base
of young leaves turning red (‘red-heart’ stage).
• The inflorescence is carried on a short peduncle and
is made up of about 100 - 200 small flowers.
• At anthesis, one to several flowers open each day,
beginning at the base of the inflorescence, over a
period of 3 - 4 weeks.
• Each flower develops into a fruitlet or ‘eye’,
therefore, the pineapple is considered a multiple fruit.
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 CHAPTER 5.
MINOR FRUITS

• Minor fruits are those which are important locally

or regionally thus are cultivated in limited amount
of land and sold during their maturity season.
• Katus (local chestnut) are collected from forest
during October/ November and are roasted to
consume as popular afternoon snacks in the hilly
areas, however a few improved Japanese cultivars
are grown in horticultural farms of the nation.

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 5.1. Mammy apple
1- Introduction to the Species Mammea americana L. - Mamey
apple
• Mammea americana, commonly known as mammee, mammee
apple,  mamey,  mamey apple, Santo Domingo apricot,
tropical apricot, or South American apricot, is an evergreen
 tree of the genus Mammea, of the family Calophyllaceae of the
order Malpighiales, whose fruit is edible.
• It has also been classified as belonging to the family Guttiferae 
Juss. (1789), which would make it a relative of the mangosteen.
• In certain Latin American countries Mammea americana is
referred to as "yellow mamey" (Spanish: Mamey amarillo) in
order to distinguish it from the unrelated but similar looking 
Pouteria sapota, whose fruit is usually called "red mamey" (
Spanish: Mamey colorado  or   Mamey rojo).
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 2- Characteristics of the Species
Mammea americana L. - Mamey apple
• 2.1- Description
               + The plant
             The mamey tree, handsome and greatly resembling the
southern magnolia, reaches 18-21 m (60 to 70 ft) in height, has a
short trunk which may attain 0.9-1.2 m (3 or 4 ft) in diameter, and
ascending branches forming an erect, oval head, densely foliaged
with evergreen, opposite, glossy, leathery, dark-green, broadly
elliptic leaves, up to 20 cm (8 in) long and 10 cm (4 in) wide.
•                + The leaves
                The tree's upright branches form an oval head. Its dark-
green foliage is quite dense, with opposite, leathery, elliptic leaves.
                Leaves are simple, glabrous, coriaceous, opposite, glossy
dark-green, broadly elliptic, up to 10 cm (3.9 in) wide and twice as
long.

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Mamey apple flowers and fruit

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                 2.2- Origin and Distribution
•                 + Origin:
                The mamey is native to the West Indies and
northern South America. It was recorded as growing near
Darién, Panama, in 1514, and in 1529 was included by
Oviedo in his review of the fruits of the New World.
                + Distribution:
                The tree comes from tropical South America. In
1529, it was included by Oviedo in his Review of the
Fruits of the New World. It was then introduced to various
regions in the Old World: West Africa, particularly 
Sierra Leone, Zanzibar, Southeast Asia and Hawaii.
               In the United States, the species is uniquely
found in Hawaiiand Florida. In the latter state, mammee
apples were probably introduced from the Bahamas.
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                 + Propagation

•             Seeds are the usual means of dissemination and they

germinate in 2 months or less and sprout readily in leaf-
mulch under the tree.
• Seedlings bear in 6 to 8 years in Mexico, 8 to 10 years in the
Bahamas.
• Vegetative propagation is preferable to avoid disappointment
in raising male trees and to achieve earlier fruiting.
• In English greenhouse culture, half-ripe cuttings with lower
leaves attached are employed.
• Both Robert Newcomb and Albert Caves of Palm Lodge
Tropical Grove, Homestead, successfully grafted the mamey
onto self-seedlings.

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 5.2. Strawberry

• Family of strawberry is Rosaceae.

• Once you have decided to begin growing
strawberries, you need to pick your starting point.
• You can grow strawberries from seeds, or you can
opt to transplant or purchase strawberry plants for
your garden.
• It is more difficult if you start with strawberry
seeds instead of existing strawberry plants.
• It is a Man-made hybrid.
• The Strawberry Seeds page will guide you
through the delicate process of sprouting
strawberry seeds and give you all the information
you could possibly desire about strawberry seeds
and where to find them.
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 Growing Strawberries from a Strawberry
Plant
• Whether you start with seed or plant, successful fruit
production comes from successfully growing strawberry
plants.
• Cultivated strawberry is Octaploid.
• All the factors and considerations needed for growing
strawberries are:
• choosing your strawberry variety, selecting your planting
site, deciding on a planting system, preparing your chosen
planting site, planting the strawberry plants, creating a
favorable environment, caring for the growing
strawberries, harvesting the berries, renovating the berry
beds, and preserving the strawberry plants throughout the
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 Buy the Strawberry Plants / Seeds

• Once you have settled on the type, variety, and

quantity of strawberry plants all that is left is to get
the best possible deal on plants.
• We’ve made it as easy for you as it can possibly be.
• Just go to the Buy Strawberry Plants or
Buy Strawberry Seeds page, find the variety you
would like to order and take a look at the listed
stores to see which one offers you the best deal.
• If you’d rather buy from a bricks-and-mortar
establishment or nursery, see our directory of local
Strawberry Nurseries.

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 Choosing Where to Grow
Strawberries
• Choosing an area conducive to growing strawberries is a
critical step in learning how to grow strawberries.
• There are several factors that need to be considered when
selecting a site for your strawberry garden.
• First, strawberries love sunlight and need full sun to
produce the largest yields.
• While harvestable berries will be produced with as little as
six hours of direct sun a day, it is best to select a site that is
clear of other tall or shadow-casting trees or plants.
• Planting strawberries away from large trees is important so
that the tree root system doesn’t compete with and siphon
away needed moisture from the growing strawberry plants.
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 Water Requirements for Growing
Strawberries
• Growing strawberry plants require a constantly moist
environment, so regular watering is needed.
• To have the most success growing strawberries, at least
an inch of water should be provided to the plants either
through rainfall or direct supplemental.
• Up to two inches of water can be given while the fruit is
forming, from early bloom until the end of harvest.
• Watering should continue during dry periods in August
and September.
• This later water helps reduce stress on the strawberry
plants which helps fruit bud formation in the following
year.
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 5.3. Tree tomato or Tomatillos
• Tomatillos are an essential ingredient for
salsa Verde and many other Mexican dishes.
• They are easy to grow, but are rarely planted
outside the Southwest.
• These members of the tomato family
produce 1-2" diameter fruits that can be
green, purple or yellow.
• Tomatillos are also called husk tomatoes; the
fruits develop inside a dry papery husk.
• When they are ripe the husk bursts open to
reveal the ripe fruit inside.

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 Cont....

• Like tomatoes, tomatillos need some support or they will

sprawl over the ground and intrude on neighboring
plants.
• Large tomato cages work well for tomatillos.
• Like tomatoes, you can set the transplants a little deeper
in the ground than they were in their pots.
• The buried stem will turn into extra roots and help feed
the plant.
• A full-size tomatillo will need more than a 12x12" space.
• The solution is to plant lettuce, spinach or radishes in the
spaces around the tomatillo.
• Once those early crops have been harvested, you can let
the tomatillo take over a little more space. Prune the
plant if it gets too rangy.
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 5.4. Loquat
• Scientific Name: Eriobotrya
japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.
• Synonyms: Crataegus bibas, Mespilus
japonicus, and Photinia japonica
• Common Names: Japanese plum, Japanese
medlar, nispero japones (Spanish), ameixa
do Japao (Portuguese), luju (Chinese),
lokwat (Maylay and Indonesian)
• Family: Rosaceae
• Relatives: apple, pear, peach, nectarine.
• Origin: Native to southeastern and central
China
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• Distribution: Loquat is grown in southern Japan, Taiwan,
Europe, the Near, Middle, and Far East, North Africa, India,
Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the East Indies (at
moderate altitudes), and North, Central, and South
America.
• History: Loquat has been cultivated in Asia for at least
1,000 years and was introduced into the US sometime
before 1879 and into Florida before 1887.
• Importance: Loquat is grown commercially throughout the
subtropical and Mediterranean areas of the world. Small
commercial acreage may be found in California.
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• FRUIT
• Fruit are pomes, held in clusters of 4 to 30, oval to rounded to
pear-shaped, 2 to 5 cm long and weigh an average of 30 to 40
g; some cultivars up to 70 g.
• The peel is smooth to slightly downy, light yellow to orange.
The pulp is white to light yellow to orange, 6.7 to 17°Brix,
sweet to sub acid, and juicy. There may be 1 to 10 dark brown
seeds.
• POLLINATION
• Loquat trees are pollinated by various insects including bees
(Apis sp.), syrphids, houseflies, Myrmeleontidae, Bombinae,
and Pieris rapae (L.). Although they are considered self-
compatible, cross pollination by another cultivar, seedling, or
selection
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 PROPAGATION
• Loquat trees may be propagated by seed, but they do not come
true from seed and they have a 6- to 8-year juvenile period
before flowering and fruiting.
• Loquat seeds may remain viable for up to six months of storage
at high RH and 41°F or cleaned and planted immediately.
Loquat may be cleft, veneer, and whip grafted or chip, patch, or
shield budded.
• Propagation by cuttings and marcottage is also possible but
more difficult.
• Vegetatively propagated trees generally begin bearing 1 to 2
years after planting. Mature planted trees may be stumped and
top-worked to desirable cultivars.
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• Loquat trees may be propagated by tissue culture
(somatic embryos), microcuttings, and by
micropropagation using terminal or axillary shoots;
however, these methods are not common in the US.
• Commonly trees are grafted onto loquat seedlings,
occasionally on Eriobotrya deflexa, and Photinia
serrulata, and may be grafted onto dwarfing
rootstocks of quince (Cydonia oblonga Mill.) and
pyracantha (Pyracantha spp.).
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 5.5. Mulberry
• Mulberry is a medium-sized deciduous
tree that produces small, tasty but messy
fruits in summer.
• There are two species commonly found in
North America: red mulberry (Morus
rubus), a native of eastern North America;
and white mulberry (Morus alba), a native
of China that is now widely naturalized in
North America.
• Both the red and white species—as well
as any hybrids—possess dark green leaves
with serrated edges and feature berries
that look strikingly similar to blackberries.

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• White mulberry is a rampant spreader
and hybridizer, so it's likely that the trees
staining sidewalks and driveways with
their fruit are this species or a hybrid
form.
• Regardless of their issues, mulberry trees
of all types can make acceptable
landscape additions as long as they're
selected and cared for properly.
• Mulberry trees are best planted in the
early spring and will grow quickly.
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Common Name Mulberry tree, red mulberry,
white mulberry
Botanical Name Morus spp.
Plant Type Deciduous tree
Mature Size 30–60 ft. tall, 20–40 ft. wide
Sun Exposure Full, partial
Soil Type Rich, moist but well-drained
Soil pH Mildly acidic to neutral
Bloom Time Spring
Flower Color Yellowish-green
Hardiness Zone 4–8 (USDA)
Native Range North America, China
Toxicity Leaves, unripe fruit mildly
toxic to humans 1

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• Pruning
• Routine pruning is not
necessary with this tree,
but damaged or crossing
shoots should be pruned
away in late fall or winter
while the tree is dormant,
which helps avoid sap
loss.
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 Propagating Mulberry

• Mulberry trees are easily propagated by rooting semi-

hardwood branch cuttings. Here's how to do it:
• In spring as new growth is starting, cut 6- to 8-inch long
segments from the tips of 1/2-inch diameter branches—
branches that are relatively new but not completely soft and
green—using sharp pruners.
• Dip the bottom of the cuttings into rooting hormone, and
plant the ends in small pots filled with commercial potting
soil or seed starter mix.
• Water the pots well, then place them inside 1-gallon clear
plastic bags bound with rubber bands.

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• Place the pots in a full shade location until they root,
checking periodically to make sure they remain
moist.
• When the cuttings have rooted (generally after about
one month), you can take off the plastic bags and
continue growing them in the pots until fall, when
they can be planted in the garden.
• Not every cutting will successfully root, so it's a good
idea to take at least four or five cuttings to increase
your odds.
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 Growing Mulberry From Seed

• Mulberry trees are incredibly easy to grow

from seed, as evidenced by the rampant self-
seeding they produce.
• Fruits collected from the tree can be dried to
collect seeds for planting, or you can simply
wait for volunteers to spring up and carefully
transplant them to new locations.

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 5.6. Passion fruit

• Passion fruit vines are strong climbers that bear

colorful, delicious fruits growers can plant and
harvest in their own home gardens.
• Passion fruit is the tough-skinned edible fruit that
grows from passiflora vine, which also produces
passion flowers.
• The passiflora vine is a fruiting and flowering
tropical plant that is native to southern Brazil and
is now grown in many tropical locations in South
America.
• The passiflora plant thrives in warm climates, and
the best time to plant it is in the spring after the
first frost has passed.
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• There are two main passiflora cultivars that bear
two kinds of passion fruit: Passiflora edulis produces
the deep purple passion fruit with prune-like rind
and a seed-filled golden center, while Passiflora
flavicarpa produces a yellow passion fruit that is
typically larger than the purple variety.
• You can grow passion fruit at home with the seeds
found inside of a passion fruit, or from a seedling
that you can purchase at a nursery.

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 How To Grow Passion Fruit From a Seed
• You can use the seeds from a store-bought passionfruit to
germinate and plant your own passionfruit vine. Here is how
to sow passion fruit from a seed.
• Choose your seeds. Choose a ripe passion fruit with a slightly
crinkled rind from the grocery store, halve it, and extract its
seeds. The riper your passion fruit, the more likely the seeds
are to germinate.
• Wash any fruit pulp from your seed and dry them with a paper
towel.

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• Prepare your seeds. To improve the chances that your
seeds will sprout, rub them between a sheet of sandpaper
and soak over night for 12 hours. If you’re not planting
your seeds immediately, store them in a sealed envelope
or airtight container.
• Germinate your seeds. To start the germination process,
bury your seed in a container filled with a small amount of
soil or seed-raising mix about an inch deep. Sow your seed
just below the surface and water it to keep the soil moist.
You can also use seaweed solution to get help your seeds
sprout more quickly.

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• Water your seeds. Water your seed regularly to
keep the soil moist, but do not saturate it. Keep
your container in a warm place to facilitate
moisture.
• Wait until the seed sprouts. Regularly water your
seed until it sprouts. Some seeds germinate within
two to three weeks, and some as long as four. Other
seeds will take up to four months to sprout, so be
patient.
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• Re-pot your seedling. When your seedling is roughly 4
inches high, re-pot your plant in a larger pot, around 6-8
inches in diameter. Gently dig the seedling free, taking
care to protect the root system, and place in a fresh
potting mix in the larger pot, watering immediately.
• Provide your plant with a climbing support so its vines
can begin to grow. After roughly six weeks, your
passionfruit plant should have a good central vine—
about eight inches in height—and will be ready to plant
in the garden against a trellis.

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• Prepare your soil. Choose a place in your
garden that gets plenty of sun to plant your
sprouted seedling.
• Enrich your soil by combining it with fertilizer
or mulch, and test the pH to make sure that it
is between 6.5 and 7.5. Loosen the soil to
make sure that it is draining properly.

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• Plant your vine. Dig a large hole in your garden
that is roughly twice the size of the plant’s root
ball.
• Remove the vine from its original container,
taking care to protect the root system. Bury the
roots with fresh potting mix and fertilizer and
water immediately.
• If you’re planting multiple plants, give them at
least 10–12 feet of space between each plant.
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• Care for your plant. Your passion fruit plant can take
18 months to 2 years to fruit and flower, and your
plant will require regular maintenance.
• Water your plant regularly, taking care to keep the soil
loose and well-draining to prevent root rot.
• Prune any tendrils that are wilting. To winterize your
plant if you live in a cold winter climate, spread a layer
of compost two inches thick over your plant's root
system to protect it from the cold during the winter
months.
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• Harvest your fruit. Once your passionfruit vine
begins to flower and fruit, leave the fruit to fully
ripen so that the color becomes vibrant and the rind
starts to wrinkle.
• At that point, you can either pick the fruit or let it
fall to the ground. It is now ready to eat.

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 5.7. Pomegranate
• There are many different varieties of
pomegranate.
• All varieties love the heat, as much as you can
give them, but some varieties have a higher
tolerance to cold temperatures than others.
• So, before you purchase and plant
pomegranate plants in your landscape or
garden, make sure the varieties you choose
will stand up to the average low
temperatures your area experiences during
winter.

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• In general, winter low temperatures should be
above 7 degrees F for the cold hard varieties,
and above 12 degrees F for the frost sensitive
varieties.

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• Pollination
• The pomegranate is both self-pollinated and
cross-pollinated by insects.
• There is very little wind dispersal of pollen. Self-
pollination of bagged flowers has resulted in 45%
fruit set.
• Cross-pollination has increased yield to 68%.
With that in mind, it's best to plant more than
one pomegranate, and more than one variety.
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• Soil 
• The difference between pomegranates and many other
fruit trees is the wide range of soils in which the
pomegranate will grow.
• From heavy clay, black loam, lime rich soils, dry rocky
hillsides to sandy soil, the pomegranate will grow almost
anywhere.
• That being said, though pomegranates will tolerate most
any type of average garden soil, they grow best in fertile,
deep, loam soil that is rich with humus, as do most other
fruit trees. 
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• Pomegranate prefers a well-draining soil. Constantly
soggy or wet soil can cause problems with their roots.
• Brief periods of flooding won't cause problems
provided the soil is well-draining. When growing on
quick-leaching sandy soil pomegranate will require
additional fertilization for good fruit production.
• Where I garden in mid Georgia, the heavy clay soil
tends to lighten fruit color, but if the fruit is for home
use this should not be a problem as the fruit will taste
just the same.
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 5.8. Sapodilla fruit
• Sapodilla is a tropical
evergreen tree, cultivated in
many countries for export.
• This tree can be grown in
home gardens and
containers as well.
• You can also plant this exotic
fruit tree by following
the Growing Sapodilla Tree
and Care tips given in this
article.
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• Sapodilla is also known as
sapota, chikoo, naseberry, or
nispero. It is a slow-growing and
long-living evergreen tree from
Mexico (Yucatan Peninsula) and
Central America.
• The tree is primarily cultivated
in India, Pakistan, Thailand,
Malaysia, Bangladesh, and
Vietnam.
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• Sapodilla grows up to 20-60
feet. In the wilderness, the
tree can reach up to 100
feet (30 m) high.
• The trunk produces hard
bark with gummy white
latex known as chicle;
the dark green leaves are
oval to elliptic shaped with
bell-like flowers.
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• The tree forms 2-3 inches (5-8 cm) diameter
berries that have a grainy, juicy pulp of pale
yellow to an earthy brown color, with 1-6 hard
black seeds.
• They have a sweet and malty flavor and are a
rich source of fructose and sucrose.
• This nutritious fruit also contains a good
amount of folate, niacin, vitamin C and A, and is
also high in iron, copper, and potassium.
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 Sapodilla Facts and Uses
• The tree is famous for the white gummy sap,
in the bark called chicle. Long ago, the Mayas
and Aztecs boiled the ‘chicle’ sap, molded it in
blocks, cut it into small chunks to chew as
chewing gums.
• The fruit tastes best when eaten fresh.
• The pulp is also famous to make sherbets,
milkshakes, and ice creams.

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 CHAPTER 6.
DECIDUOUS FRUITS IN THE
TROPICS
6.1. INTRODUCTION
• Deciduous fruits grown in the backyards include
Asian pear, peach, apricot, persimmon and walnut.
• Almost all of these have their indigenous species in
the wild.
• The exotic and commercially cultivated deciduous
fruits include apple, peach, plum, apricot, Bartlett
pear, Nashi, and cherry.
• There is now a growing tendency to replace the old
monastery orchards also with improved cultivars that
are now [Link] by: GETACHEW ASAMENEW
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 Cont....
• The main cultivars of apple are Red Delicious, Royal Delicious and
Golden Delicious, which account for over 80% of the apple area.
• These cultivars were first introduced in the 1960s from the northern
Indian States of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
• By the 1980s a host of new improved cultivars were brought in from
Japan, which now constitute about 15% of the apple areas (see
Appendix 1 for species, cultivar and rootstock details).
• Apple is generally grown in temperate areas from about 1800m to
3000m.
• According to the preliminary survey carried out by the Integrated
Horticulture Development Project in 1992, there were about 365,000
apple trees in the country, covering roughly about 1400 ha.
• The present apple population is estimated to be around 565,000 based
on the average annual sale of 50,000 plants from the Druk Seed
Corporation in the last five years.
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 6.2. Stone fruit
Soil and Site Requirements
• Good soil moisture drainage is essential for growing healthy,
productive trees.
• Soils with standing water or ones that remain saturated for
even a day or two following a heavy rain are unsuitable for
fruit trees.
• If this describes your soil, you can still grow fruit by planting
trees in well-drained, raised beds.
• Prepare beds by bringing in or scraping up topsoil into a 6- to
12-inch-high mound at least 8 to 10 feet across.
• High organic potting soil mixes are less desirable because they
encourage continual fall growth and make young trees more
vulnerable to winter freeze injury.
• A raised bed can be framed with railroad ties or edging
timbers for a more attractive appearance.
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 Cont...
• A soil fertility test before planting helps avoid
undesirable sites, and minerals such as phosphorus and
potassium can be added before planting where needed.
• Information on soil testing is available from your local
county Extension office.
• Plentiful sunlight is a key to maximizing fruit
production.
• Choose an area that is sunny most or all of the day.
• Early morning sunshine is particularly important to dry
dew from the plants; thereby, reducing the incidence of
diseases.
• If the planting site does not get sufficient sun, expect
reduced performance from the trees.
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 Cont...

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• Purchase trees from a reliable nursery source.
Bargain plants may not be healthy or may not be a
variety adapted to your area.
• Ideally, purchase 3- to 4-foot trees with good root
systems free of apparent disease problems.
• A smaller tree with a good root system is more
desirable than a larger tree with a poor root system.
• Specify that you want trees that are budded onto
Nemaguard rootstock to prevent root knot nematode
damage.
• Most fruit trees are sold "bare root." Purchase and
plant bare root trees while fully dormant, generally in
December through February for most of Texas.
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 Soil Preparation and Planting

• Thoroughly prepare the soil by deeply cultivating, either

by hand or with a rototiller before planting.
• At this time also make any recommended adjustments to
the soil.
• When the fruit trees arrive from the nursery, open the
bundles immediately to inspect for damage and check
general condition of the trees.
• Do not accept trees if roots appear to have dried out.
• This is also true for trees purchased from your local
nursery or garden center. "Heel in" the trees if you are not
ready to plant them.
• Simply dig a shallow trench in which tree roots or a bundle
of trees can be covered with moist soil to protect them until
planting.
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 Pruning and Training

• Pruning a young tree controls its shape by developing a

strong, well-balanced framework of scaffold branches.
• The open center pruning system is best suited for stone
fruit trees.
• Since most fruit trees bear fruit on wood that grew the
previous year, this wood is regrown from year to year.
• New growth needs full light or it will shade out and die
with all the production occurring on the outer perimeter
of the tree.
• The open center system outlined in figures 1-6
maximizes light penetration to all parts of the tree,
resulting in fruit production over the entire tree.
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 Irrigation

• Water is essential for producing large fruit and

maintaining healthy trees.
• Whether trees are watered by drip irrigation, sprinklers,
the garden hose or rainfall makes little difference as
long as the trees receive sufficient water.
• Normally trees need water at least every 3 weeks.
• In summer heat, provide a deep soaking irrigation at
least weekly to maintain healthy trees.
• Overwatering can damage or drown trees.
• Sticky clay soils are especially vulnerable to water
saturation and should be allowed to dry for a few days
between each watering.
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 6.2.1 ALMOND

• World almond production has been estimated to

be about 334.000 tons (average from 1992 to
1996) of shelled product.
• The main producing country is the United
States, which accounts for 68% of the world
production.
• The other producing countries are Spain (16%),
Italy (4%), Greece (3.7%), Iran (1.8%), Tunisia
(1.8%), Morocco (1.7%), Portugal (1.1%),
followed by Turkey and others countries with a
lower production.
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 Almond tree management

• Pruning encourages consistent, high yields of

good quality nuts.
• It is also used to shape the tree to ensure it has
the right pattern of branches to carry the load
and allow good light penetration and air
circulation as well as to remove diseased or
weak branches and those that grow into the
working space between the tree rows.

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 Cont....

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 6.2.2. APRICOT
Description
• The apricot is a small tree, 8–12 m (26–39 ft) tall, with a trunk
up to 40 cm (16 in) in diameter and a dense, spreading canopy.
• The leaves are ovate, 5–9 cm (2.0–3.5 in) long and 4–8 cm (1.6–
3.1 in) wide, with a rounded base, a pointed tip and a finely
serrated margin.
• The flowers are 2–4.5 cm (0.8–1.8 in) in diameter, with five
white to pinkish petals; they are produced singly or in pairs in
early spring before the leaves.
• The fruit is a drupe similar to a small peach, 1.5–2.5 cm (0.6–
1.0 in) diameter (larger in some modern cultivars), from yellow
to orange, often tinged red on the side most exposed to the sun;
its surface can be smooth (botanically described as: glabrous) or
velvety with very short hairs (botanically: pubescent).
• The flesh is usually firm and not very juicy.
• Its taste can range from
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 Cultivation and uses

• The origin of the apricot is disputed and unsettled.

• It was known in Armenia during ancient times, and has
been cultivated there for so long that it is often thought to
have originated there.
• Its scientific name Prunus armeniaca (Armenian plum)
derives from that assumption.
• For example, the Belgian arborist Baron de Poerderlé,
writing in the 1770s, asserted, "Cet arbre tire son nom de
l'Arménie, province d'Asie, d'où il est originaire et d'où il
fut porté en Europe ..."
• ("this tree takes its name from Armenia, province of Asia,
where it is native, and whence it was brought to
Europe ...").
• An archaeological excavation at Garni in Armenia found
apricot seeds in a Chalcolithic-era
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site.
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 Cultivation practices
• Apricots have a chilling requirement of 300 to 900 chilling units.
• A dry climate is good for fruit maturation.
• It is a Fruit found in desert of cold arid region.
• The tree is slightly more cold-hardy than the peach, tolerating
winter temperatures as cold as −30 °C (−22 °F) or lower if healthy.
• A limiting factor in apricot culture is spring frosts: They tend to
flower very early (in early March in western Europe), meaning
spring frost can kill the flowers.
• Furthermore, the trees are sensitive to temperature changes during
the winter season.
• In China, winters can be very cold, but temperatures tend to be
more stable than in Europe and especially North America, where
large temperature swings can occur in winter.
• They prefer well-drained soils with a pH of 6.0 to 7.0.
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 6.2.3. CHERRIES

Botany
• Many cherries are allied to the subgenus Prunus subg
. Cerasus, which is distinguished by having the
flowers in small corymbs of several together (not
singly, nor in racemes), and by having smooth fruit
with only a weak groove along one side, or no groove.
• The subgenus is native to the temperate regions of the
Northern Hemisphere, with two species in America,
three in Europe, and the remainder in Asia.
• Other cherry fruits are borne on racemes and called
bird cherries.

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 Cultivation

• The cultivated forms are of the species sweet cherry (P. avium) to
which most cherry cultivars belong, and the sour cherry (P.
cerasus), which is used mainly for cooking.
• Both species originate in Europe and western Asia; they usually
do not cross-pollinate.
• Some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown
extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the
two main species will not grow.
• Irrigation, spraying, labor, and their propensity to damage from
rain and hail make cherries relatively expensive. Nonetheless,
demand is high for the fruit.
• In commercial production, sour cherries, as well as sweet cherries
sometimes, are harvested by using a mechanized 'shaker'.
• Hand picking is also widely used for sweet as well as sour
cherries to harvest the fruit to avoid damage to both fruit and
trees.
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 CHERRIES

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 6.2.4. NECTARINE

Origin and distribution

• Nectarines (Prunus persica) are originally from China and are
the first crop to be domesticated about 4 000 years ago.
• Most of the cultivars that are grown today derive largely from
ecotypes native to southern China.
• Nectarines were moved to Persia (Iran) and the name persica
denotes Persia.
• The Europeans thought that peaches originated from Persia.
• Its native name at one time was called Persian apple.
• The nectarines were started to be spread throughout Europe
and England in 300 to 400 BC by the Greeks and the Romans.
• Speculations are that they came to the new world with
explorers of the 16 to 17th centuries with the Portuguese
introducing it to the South Americans and Spaniards
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 Propagation

• Peaches/nectarine trees cannot be propagated from seed.

• Buds of the required cultivar are either budded or short
shoots are grafted onto compatible rootstocks.
• The rootstocks should be selected according to the
criteria mentioned earlier in this publication.
• It would not be advisable for a producer to propagate his
own trees.
• All peaches/nectarine trees in South Africa have Plant
Breeders’ Rights and are therefore protected by
legislation against illegal propagation.
• However, it would be advisable to purchase trees from a
reputable nursery as it would ensure true-to-type as well
as pest and disease-free trees.
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 Soil preparation

• It would be sensible not to economize on soil preparation.

• In the long-run thorough soil preparation will be rewarded with
higher yields.
• The land should be cleared of any weeds or plant residue from
crops which previously grew on the land.
• Soil samples should be taken and sent to a reputable laboratory
where it can be analyzed in order to determine the nutrient content
and the water-holding capacity of the soil as well as to test for the
incidence of diseases or pests such as nematodes.
• The soils could be fumigated when the soil analysis indicated a
nematode problem.
• However, expert advice should be obtained.
• Herbicides must be applied with care as traces of herbicide residue
in the soil could have a negative effect on young trees.
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 6.2.5. PEACHES
• The peach is original from China; it was taken to the
West through commercial routes.
• It is one of the most important cultures in the world,
with a global production around 10 thousand tons.
• The world production centers on the Mediterranean area,
being Italy and Spain the main exporting countries.
• The peach tree (Prunus persica) is original from China,
where references to the culture go 3000 years back.
• Later on, it was introduced in Persia by the commercial
routes through the mountains, to an extent that it was
known as Persica fruit, from where its scientifical name
persica was taken.
• That is why many people wrongly think that peaches
come from Persia.
• The peaches arrived at Greece towards year 330 B.C.
and during the middle Ages they spreaded all around
Europe.
• Harvesting stage of peach is Fruit is still hard.
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 6.2.6. PLUMS

• There are so many varieties of plums (Prunus) available it’s

hard to grow just one.
• I’ve grown the American plums in my USDA.
• Most plums grow on small-sized trees (12- to 15-feet tall),
are productive, and have juicy fruits with green yellow, red,
or purple skins and sweet or tart flesh good for eating fresh
or used for making jams and jellies.
When to Plant
• Plant bare root plum trees from a mail order nursery in early
spring as soon as the ground can be worked or container
plum trees from a local garden center in spring or summer.
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 Cont...

Where to Plant
• Plums grow best in full sun on well-drained soils.
• American and European varieties tend to tolerate heavy clay
soils better than the Japanese varieties.
• Plant on a south-facing slope unless you have late spring frosts.
• Then, it’s best to plant on a north-facing slope to delay blooming
in spring.
How to Plant
• Plant standard-sized plum trees 15- to 20-feet apart, semi-dwarf
varieties 12- to 15-feet apart, and dwarf trees 8-to 10-feet apart.
• Dig a hole twice as large as the root ball and plant so the graft
union (bulge on the tree trunk) is 2 inches above the soil line.
• Oldest training system in plum is Centre.
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 PLUMS

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 6.3. POME FRUITS

• Advantages of homegrown pome fruit are

numerous.
• You can grow varieties that are not readily
available in grocery stores, control the level of
pesticides used, and gain a greater understanding
of the processes of nature that interact with the
tree to produce these wonderful fruits.
• Remember, however, that producing high-quality
apple and pear fruit requires careful observation
as well as knowledge of how to respond to
various pest problems that you may encounter.
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• Because apples and pears have . many insect and disease
pests, growing quality fruit in Pennsylvania is difficult
without some pesticide use.
• Home gardeners are encouraged, however, to purchase
disease-resistant varieties if they are available.
• Although these varieties are not resistant to all diseases that
occur in Pennsylvania, they are resistant to the major ones.
• Pesticides still might be required, particularly in wet
seasons, but their application rates can be reduced greatly.
• Under normal conditions, a home gardener might have to
apply pesticides six to ten times to produce fruit of
reasonable quality.
• If scab-resistant apples are planted, a gardener might need
only two to three pesticide applications to produce quality
apples.
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 Planting
• The soil should be prepared thoroughly by deep cultivation
either by hand or with a rototiller before planting.
• The soil pH should be maintained between 6.0 and 6.5.
• Have a soil test taken and make the recommended adjustments
before planting.
• You can get information on soil testing from your county
extension office.
• In the absence of a soil test, lime a 10-by-10-foot area where
each tree will be planted.
• Dig each planting hole wide enough to accommodate all of the
root system without bending or bunching it, and deep enough
so that the bud union of grafted plants will be no more than 2
inches above the ground line after the soil settles.

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 Flowering Habits of Apples and Pears
• Recognizing where the flowers and fruit develop on the
different types of tree fruits is important and will determine
how the different species are pruned and trained.
• Tree fruit have two types of buds, terminal and lateral
buds.
• Apples and pears flower and fruit primarily on terminal
buds.
• A terminal, sometimes called the apical bud, is one located
at the tip of a shoot.
• A lateral bud develops along the developing shoot at the
base of the leaf blade.
• The flower/fruit buds in apples and pears can be terminal
on long shoots (greater than 4 inches) or more commonly
on short shoots called
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 6.3.1. APPLE

Site selection, land preparation and planting

• The training started with a theoretical briefing to make aware
of the trainees on what best fertile ground should be available
to grow Apple.
• Accordingly, apple does best in areas with altitude of 2400
m.a.s.l and above.
• It also needs fertile soil, protected site (fence) and wind break.
• Shade (barrier to sun light) and waterlogged areas should be
avoided for apple production.
• Land preparation should start 3-4 weeks before the actual
planting time.
• Pit with 50 cm deep and diameter of 60 cm should be prepared.
• “King of Temperate Fruits” is called Apple.
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 APPLE

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 Types/varieties of apple

• Apple varieties/types grouped into three depending of the

chilling requirement.
• Low chill which needs 250-500 chilling unit and the
varieties tested under our country from this group include
Anna, Princissa, Dorsett Golden, and CP-92.
• The medium chill requires 550-1000 chilling unit and
varieties like Gala, Fuji and Primicia were tested in Ethiopia.
• The high chill apple needs more than 1000 chilling units and
they are not common in our country.
• Apple is divided in to 4 grades.
• Recurrent type of apomixes is found in apple.
• The constituent responsible for the aroma of Apple is
Ethyl-2-methyl.
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 Chilling requirement:

• The chilling requirement of a fruit is the minimum

period of cold weather after which a fruit-bearing
tree will blossom.
• It is often expressed in chill hours, which can be
calculated in different ways, all of which essentially
involve adding up the total amount of time in a
winter spent at certain temperatures. Chilling unit:
Chilling unitin agriculture is a metric of a plant's
exposure to chilling temperatures.
• Chilling temperatures extend from freezing point to,
depending on the model, 7 °C (45 °F) or even 16 °C

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 Watering/mulching

• During dry season single ring will be made

around each apple tree to retain enough water
for the plant.
• The size of the ring depends based on the
branching capacity of the tree.
• Mulching of apple tree will be done using
different grasses available in the area.

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 Disease control

• The common fungal diseases on apple tree

include powdery mildew, Downey mildew,
rust, root rot, damping off, leaf curl and smut.
• These disease mostly attack leaf, stem, flower
and fruit of the apple.
• Bitter pit in Apple is due to the deficiency of
calcium.

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 6.3.2. PEARS

• Pears are excellent backyard trees.

• They produce a fruit sweeter and juicier than most
apples; a fruit that easily ripens off the tree.
• Pear trees live longer than most apple trees and they
require less pruning and thinning.
• Most pears, however, require warmer winters than apples.
• A few pear varieties can survive winters with cold to -
20°F, but most demand much warmer winters, ideally to
not much colder than 20°F (-6.7°C).
• Pears should be planted where they warm quickly in
spring and where they are protected from wind and frost
—especially during their bloom time.

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 PEARS

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 Types of Pears:
There are three basic types of pears:

• European pears have the traditional teardrop

pear shape with a neck either short or long;
these pears ripen to be either soft or semi-soft
and are usually sweet and juicy to the bite.
• Asian pears are sometimes called apple pears
because they are round in shape and crisp, firm,
and hard to the bite; they, too, are sweet, but not
usually juicy.
• A third type of pear is the European-Asian
hybrid.
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 Use of Fruit:
When you select a pear tree, consider how you intend to
use the fruit.
Pear trees are classed for use as follows:
• Dessert pears are for fresh eating;
• they are picked firm, ripened off the tree, and
eaten out of hand.
• Culinary pears are for cooking; these pears do
not ripen soft enough for eating out of hand;
• they remain firm and can be baked or cooked.
• Dual pears can be eaten fresh or cooked.

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 Training, Pruning and Thinning:

• Pears should be trained early to a good framework.

• A pear can be trained to a single leader (main trunk) or you
can train the tree to two or three leaders.
• Training to two or more leaders is insurance against leader
damage later (such as wind damage or fire blight damage to
a leader).
• In the first couple of years after planting, spread the
branches each spring so that they do not shoot straight up;
• spread branches so that they grow 60 degrees from vertical;
• use a stick notched at each end to spread apart two
branches or hand a weight near the ends of branches to
hold them down and train them down;
• begin this training each spring after blossoms fall.
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 6.3.3. QUINCES

• In growth the Quince is a fairly modestly growing tree

and isn’t especially vigorous.
• Mature dimensions vary a lot according to the soil it is
grown in but a height estimate between 8-14’ is normal
and the spread is about the same.
• They can be controlled with sensible pruning if need
be and are usually judged good trees for smaller
gardens and of course are ideal incorporated into
cottage gardens [bear in mind their great antiquity] and
traditional orchards.
• The Quince adds a wonderful very distinct character
and diversity.
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 QUINCES

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 Soil preparation & planting

• Standard soil preparation as for most fruit trees

applies in that the area should be double dug,
preferably some weeks beforehand and weeded
thoroughly.
• The extra time between soil preparation and
planting allows for the soil to break down further
and also to deal with the secondary crop of
weeds that will likely appear.
• An application of grow more at 4oz’s per square
yard and lightly incorporated into the planting
area.
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 Pruning Quince trees
• Usually consists of reducing strong upright leaders by
about a third in late Summer.
• Badly placed branches or shoots can similarly be reduced,
or removed completely.
• Aim to keep the lower trunk clear of branches so these
should be removed at any early age, a trunk clearance of
3.5-4’ is usually about right for a Quince tree.
• The centre of the tree should be kept relatively open so if it
is looking congested remove select branches completely at
their base.
• There are no really hard and fast rules for pruning
Quinces;
• it’s a matter of reducing some strong growths for fruiting
purposes and aiming to achieve a pleasing shape.
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 QUINCE FRUIT

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 6.4. MISCELLANEOUS FRUIT
6.4.1. GRAPES
Introduction :
• The grape is the most important crop grown in the world.
• Mostly it grown for making wines and preparation of
raisin and then as a table fresh fruit.
• While in India, it is mainly grown for table use.
• Grape cultivation is believed to have originated near
Caspian Sea, however, Indians know grapes since
Roman times.
• Total area under grapes in India is about 40,000 ha,
distributed mainly in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
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 Economic importance:

• At present, grape is the most important fruit crop

grown commercially with the objectives.
• a. For table purpose
• b. For export purpose
• c. For making wines and
• d. For making raisins.
• Fresh grapes are a fairly good source of minerals
like calcium, phosphorous, iron and vitamins like B.
• Famous champagne and other desert wines are
prepared from grapes.

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 Propagation:

• Grapevine is most commonly propagated by hard-wood

cuttings, though propagation by seed, soft wood cutting,
layering, grafting and budding is specific to certain
situations.
• Occasionally, un rooted cuttings are also planted directly
in the field in the pre-determined position for a vine.
• For hardwood cuttings, IBA, 1000 ppm treatment is
useful for early, better and uniform rooting of cutting.
• For grafting Dog ridge, Ramsey, 1616, 1613,1103P,
So4, etc. are used.
• Sometimes the rootstocks are planted in the field and
there they are grafted with suitable varieties.

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 Propagation Methods
• As commercial winemakers usually want to work with
a desired grape variety that dependably produces a
particular crop, most grapevines are propagated by
clonal or massal selection of plant material.
• This can be accomplished in one of three ways.
Cuttings
• This involves a shoot taken from a mother vine and
then planted where the shoot will eventually sprout a
root system and regenerate itself into a full-fledged
vine with trunk and canopy.
• Often new cuttings will be first planted in a nursery
where it is allowed to develop for a couple of years
before being planted in the vineyard.
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 Grafting

• Grafting is a process in which a new grape

vine is produced by making a cut in the
rootstock and then adding scion wood that is
cut to fit inside the incision made in the
rootstock.
• This involves removing the canopy and most
of the trunk of an existing vine and replacing it
with a cutting of a new vine that is sealed by a
graft union.

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 GRAPES

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 Care of young orchard:
• Grapes vines takes about 1.5 to 2 years after planting to bear the
first crop.
• During this period the care of young vines is taken as under:-
• Training: The vines are trained first on bamboo and then on
support – trellis.
• A suitable method of training is adopted.
• Pruning – Initial pruning is done only for training i.e. for
developing trunk, arm, fruiting, canes, etc.
• The fertilizer doses – including organic, inorganic and bio-
fertilizers are applied twice in a year.
• Plant protection schedule is prepared and followed for the total
initial period of growing.
• Bower system of training of grapes has high cost benefit ratio.

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 Nutrition:

• Balanced nutrition and use of chemical, organic and

biofertilizers is essential to get a good crop of good quality
every year.
• About 700 to 900 N, 400 to 600 P and 750 to 1000 K Kgs/
ha/year are applied to get about 30 to 35 tonnes produced
yearly.
• The use of vermiphos, biomeal, mixtures of [Link]
ormichem, micronutrient mixtures have proved useful in
grape production.
• Fertilizers are applied mainly twice in a year at the time of
pruning, besides occasional foliar sprays are also practiced.
• Now-a days, Fertigation techniques is being popular in
grape growers.

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 KIWI OR Chinese gooseberry

• Kiwifruit are produced by a large, deciduous vine botanically

known as Actinidia deliciosa.
• Individual plants bear either male or female flowers, so both
types of plants are planted in a vineyard at a ratio of 8 females
to 1 male to ensure adequate cross-pollination and fruit set.
• Bees are necessary for pollination; wind pollination is
unsatisfactory because it does not produce large fruit.
• Worldwide, Hayward is the preferred variety because of its
large fruit.
• Male varieties are many with the California of Chico male the
most common in California.
• Matua is another widely used male in California and New
Zealand.

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 KIWI

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 Soil and Water Needs
• Kiwifruit vines grow best on class 1 soils, especially deep, alluvial
soils.
• Good and sometimes excellent production is obtained on class 2
soils if properly managed.
• Kiwifruit vines grow and produce better on loam and silt-loam
soils than on loamy sands.
• Kiwifruit vines require low-salt water as other fruit crops do.
• Chloride, bicarbonate, boron, and sodium, are the most damaging.
• Approximate safe levels for irrigation water are: chloride less than
70 ppm, bicarbonate less than 200 ppm, boron less than .25 ppm,
sodium less than 50 ppm, and electrical conductivity EC x 103
less than .75.
• Soil for kiwifruit vineyards should have less than .25 ppm boron,
low sodium, electrical conductivity of .75 or less and pH less than
7.3.
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 Pruning
• Pruning and vine training are major annual costs and
should follow some general guidelines, although
pruning and training techniques vary among growers.
• Most pruning in California is done during the winter
while New Zealand growers do as much summer
pruning as winter pruning.
• In the hot California climate summer shade must be
maintained over the fruit, while in New Zealand growers
remove part of the summer shoot growth to let light into
their plants to encourage fruit bud formation for the next
year's crop.
• Despite these differences, California should do some
summer pruning to reduce shade and vine growth and
encourage better fruit
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bud development.
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 6.4.3. FIG
• Figs (Ficus carica, L.) have been a part of Texas
homesteads since the early development of the state.
• Family of fig is Moraceae, it is a climacteric fruit.
• Figs grow extremely well along the Texas Gulf Coast,
but dooryard trees can be grown in any section of Texas.
• In the northern portions of the state, fig trees will require
some cold protection and supplemental irrigation will be
needed in arid areas or during extended dry periods.
• The fig fruit is unique. Unlike most fruit, in which the
edible structure is matured ovary tissue, the fig's edible
structure is actually stem tissue.
• The fig fruit is an inverted flower with both the male and
female flower parts enclosed in stem tissue.
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 FIG

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 Soils

• Although figs can be grown in all types of soil,

they do not tolerate poorly drained sites.
• Avoid sites and soils where water stands for
more than 24 hours after a rain.
• In areas of poor drainage, roots receive
insufficient oxygen, which results in stunted
growth and eventual death of the tree.
• Figs are relatively salt-tolerant and can be
grown along the coast near brackish water.

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 Cultural practices
• Figs should be spaced 12 to 20 feet apart and should not be
fertilized at planting.
• Figs should be cut back when they are transplanted and
survive better if set 2 to 4 inches deeper than they were grown
in the nursery.
• The "heading back" develops lateral branches and reduces
water loss from the above ground portion.
• Since the root system may be damaged during transplanting
operations, water uptake may be reduced until they become
established.
• Fig trees planted in late fall often develop root systems before
leafing out in the spring, but because young trees are more
susceptible to cold injury, it is often advisable to delay
transplanting until just before dormancy is broken in early
spring.
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 Pruning

Pruning
• Figs should be pruned very little.
• Do not prune mature Celeste and Alma trees because this
reduces the crop size.
• Texas Ever bearing produces a fair crop following a heavy
winter pruning.
• To stimulate new growth thin out older trees which grow
very little each year.
• Thinning also increases fruit size.
• Prune the trees enough to stimulate approximately 1 foot of
growth each year.
• Remove all weak, diseased, or dead limbs each dormant
season.
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 Propagation

Propagation
• Figs can be propagated by suckers, layering, or
cuttings.
• Suckers from the crown of the bush are not
advisable because they will transfer nematodes
from the roots of the mother bush.
• The easiest way to propagate figs is by stem
cuttings.

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 6.4.4. PERSIMMON
DESCRIPTION
• Persimmon is a dioecious, deciduous tree growing to 25 ft
(7.6 m) high.
• It has ovate or obovate leaves, 3 in. to 7 in. (7.6-17.8 cm)
long that are shiny on top and pubescent beneath.
• The leaves are borne on pubescent branchlets.
• Persimmon flowers are yellowish white and 0.75 in. (1.9
cm) long.
• Staminate (male) flowers have 16 to 24 stamens, while
pistillate (female) flowers have eight staminodes.
• The fruit is classified as a a juicy berry.
• It is 3.5 in. (8.9 cm) in diameter and variable in shape, with a
pale yellow, orange, or red exterior, and with orange flesh.
• There is an enlarged persistent calyx at its base.
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Fruits are usually set Compiled
in clusters.
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 PERSIMMON

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 PROPAGATION

• Diospyros kaki seedlings are the preferred rootstocks

for persimmon cultivars.
• They develop long taproots with few fibrous laterals,
and rootstock cultivars have been selected that produce
vigorous, uniform seedlings.
• Rootstocks of D. virginiana (American persimmon)
and D. Iotus (date plum) are known to be better for wet
soils, but the former produces variable trees and
excessive suckering.
• D. Iotus is susceptible to crown gall and is
incompatible with the 'Fuyu' cultivar as rootstocks or
scion wood.
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 CULTURAL PRACTICES

• Tree spacing averages 15 ft to 20 ft (4.6-6.1 m) apart

but varies with cultivar and soil fertility.
• Generally, wider spacing is used on deeper, more fertile
soils.
• In Japan trees are sometimes planted at close spacing
and thinned after five to 10 years.
• Care is necessary when transplanting to the field,
because persimmon roots are fragile and easily
damaged by drying or rough handling.
• Young plants are trained to a modified central-leader
structure by pruning shoots during the first few seasons,
forcing growth into framework branches.
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 HARVEST

• Persimmons are harvested when mature but still firm, with color
nearly fully developed.
• 'Maru' fruit is greenish yellow when ripe; 'Fuyu' and 'Hachiya'
fruits are orange.
• The fruit is removed from the tree by clipping or breaking the
stems, leaving the calyx lobes attached to the fruit (Figures 2, 4, 6).
• Persimmons must be handled carefully to avoid damage.
• Rough handling causes bruising and skin discoloration.
• Harvest season varies with elevation, being later at higher
elevations.
• The usual harvest season for 'Maru' in Kula is October to
November; for 'Fuyu', October to December; and for 'Hachiya'
November to December.

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 POSTHARVEST

• Both 'Fuyu' and 'Maru' fruits are firm when ripe.

• 'Maru' fruit needs to be cured after maturity to remove
astringency caused by tannins.
• The non astringent 'Fuyu' fruit is ripened on the tree and
is ready to eat when harvested.
• 'Hachiya' fruit can be picked when firm and ripened at
room temperature until soft.
• Its astringency is eliminated during the ripening process.
• Its color should be well developed before picking, or it
may soften unevenly and remain astringent.
• Astringency is removed from 'Maru' persimmons by a
number of curing methods.
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 PRODUCTION

• Persimmon is grouped with other tropical

specialty fruits such as abiu, caimito, durian,
langsat, longan, loquat, mangosteen, sapodilla,
soursop, and white sapote.
• In 1992, these crops were grown on 120 acres
on 55 farms.
• There were 1,640 trees that bore fruit out of
10,440 trees.
• There were 301,000 pounds of these specialty
fruits produced in 1992, and the total value of
sale was $174,800.
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 THE END

THANK YOU!!!
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