EMM 3122

Engineering Materials

Chap. 3: Mechanical Properties of

Alloy Metals

Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department

Engineering Faculty
University Putra Malaysia (UPM)
 Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are

they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6 - 2
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

Chapter 6 - 3
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic
Chapter 6 - 4
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
F
= s F Ft
Ft lb N
= = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
Chapter 6 - 5
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
L
   L 
Lo Lo wo
wo

L /2
• Shear strain:

x  = x/y = tan 

y 90º - 
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 6 - 6
 Strain-stress test
• The concept is applying a uniaxial tensile load until bar breaks; increasing of
load and elongation are measured.

• specimen

extensometer specimen

Typical tensile
test machine

Chapter 6 -
 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
E =
Strain Fracture strength /
Slope

Hardening Failure
5
2
Stress, (F/A)

Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε
σ Region fracture
E
ε 1 4
E
σy
ε 2  ε1 Strain, (L/Lo)  Chapter 6 -
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
=E  F
E


Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Chapter 6 - 9
 Poisson's ratio, 
• Poisson's ratio, :
L

L

 

metals:  ~ 0.33 -
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
polymers:  ~ 0.40

Units:  > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]  < 0.50 density decreases
: dimensionless (voids form)

Chapter 6 - 10
 Other Elastic Properties
 M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
 torsion
=G test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G K
2(1  ) 3(1  2)
Chapter 6 - 11
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 6 - 12

 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:

  FL o    Fw o 2ML o
L

EA o EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
/2  = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
L /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 13
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 14
 Yield Strength, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y = yield strength
y

Note: for 2 inch sample

 = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, 
p = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 15
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
400
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,

Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 16
10
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

TS Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal Neck – acts

as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 17
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140) a
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) a = annealed
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET hr = hot rolled
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) ag = aged
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 cd = cold drawn
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE cw = cold worked
20 Graphite
LDPE qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
10 aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
wood ( fiber)

1 Chapter 6 - 18
 Ductility
L f  Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL  x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress,  larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf

Engineering tensile strain, 

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 6 - 19
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, 
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 -
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur   d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur  y  y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 21
 Elastic Strain Recovery

y i D

y o
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Elastic strain

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. recovery
Chapter 6 - 22
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 23
Hardness and Hardness Testing

• Hardness:
the
resistance
to plastic
deformation
(e.g., a local
dent or
scratch).

• General
procedure:

Rockwell hardness
tester

Chapter 6 -
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 6 - 25
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 26
 True Stress & Strain
The decrease in eng.stress beyond the tensile strength on the
eng.stress-strain curve is related to definition of eng. stress. We used
the original Ao in calculation, but this not precise becoz the area
continually changes.
• True stress T  F Ai T  1   
• True strain T  lni o  T  ln1   

Chapter 6 -
 Hardening
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0


• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T  K T  n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 28
 Flexural test for brittle materials

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein
under license.
(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength of brittle
materials, and (b) the deflection δ obtained by bending.

Flexural strength f = 3FL/2wh2

        
Modulus of Elasticity / Flexural modulus (E) = L3 F/4wh3

 = deflection of the beam when a force (F) is applied.

Chapter 6 -
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working  1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y
working  1045 plain
N carbon steel:
y = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5

 d /42
 F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 - 30
 Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 -
TERIMA KASIH

Chapter 8 -