Dr.

Muhammad Umar Manzoor

 Introduction to Materials
• There are, it is said, more than 50,000 materials available to the
engineer.
• In designing a structure or device,
• How is the engineer to choose from this vast menu the material which
best suits the purpose?
• Mistakes can cause disasters.
• During the Second World War,
one class of welded merchant ship
suffered heavy losses, not by
enemy attack, but by breaking in
half at sea:
• the fracture toughness of the steel
— and, particularly, of the welds
was too low.
 Introduction to Materials
• Three Comet aircraft were lost before it was realized that the design
called for a fatigue strength that —given the design of the window
frames —was greater than that possessed by the material.
• These bulk properties are listed
in Table, along with other
common classes of property
that the designer must consider
when choosing a material.
 Materials
• More engineering components are made of metals and alloys than of any other class of
solid.
• But increasingly, polymers are replacing metals because they offer a combination of
properties which are more attractive to the designer.
• Now new ceramics are an emerging class of engineering material which may permit
more efficient heat engines, sharper knives, and bearings with lower friction.
• The engineer can combine the best properties of these materials to make composites
(the most familiar is fiberglass, GFRP, CFRP) which offer specially attractive
packages of properties.
• And — finally — one should not ignore natural materials like wood and leather
which have properties which — even with the innovations of today’s materials
scientists — are hard to beat.
 Metals
• Chemical elements that are solid (with relatively high melting points), hard, strong,
durable, shiny, good conductors of electricity and heat, and easy to work into
various different shapes and forms (such as thin sheets and wires).
• Nonmetals, mean everything else.
• Sometimes, people refer to semimetals or metalloids, which are elements whose
physical properties and chemical properties are somewhere in between those of
metals and nonmetals.
• Semimetals include such elements as silicon and germanium—semiconductors
(materials that conduct electricity only under special conditions) used to
make integrated circuits in computer chips and solar cells.
• Other semimetals include arsenic, boron, and antimony (all of which have been used
in the preparation—"doping"— of semiconductors).
 Polymers
• Plastics (or polymers) are generally organic compounds based upon
carbon and hydrogen.
• They are very large molecular structures.
• Usually they are low density and are not stable at high temperatures.
• They can be readily formed into complex shapes.
• Their strength, stiffness, and melting temperatures are generally much
lower than those of metals and ceramics.
• Their light weight, low cost, and ease of forming make them the
preferred material for many engineering applications.
 Composites
• Composites are made by combining two or more natural or artificial materials to maximize their useful
properties and minimize their weaknesses.
• One of the oldest and best-known composites, glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GRP), combines 
• glass fibers (which are strong but brittle) with 
• plastic (which is flexible)
• to make a composite material that is tough but not brittle.
• Composites are typically used in place of metals because they are equally strong but much lighter.
• Most composites consist of fibers of one material tightly bound into another material called a matrix.
• The matrix binds the fibers together somewhat like an adhesive and makes them more resistant to external
damage, whereas the fibers make the matrix stronger and stiffer and help it resist cracks and fractures.
• Fibers and matrix are usually (but not always) made from different types of materials.
• The fibers are typically glass, carbon, silicon carbide, or asbestos, while the matrix is usually plastic,
metal, or a ceramic material (though materials such as concrete may also be used).
 Composites
• Three types of matrix produce three common types of composites:
• Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), of which GRP is the best-known example, use ceramic
fibers in a plastic matrix.
• Metal-matrix composites (MMCs) typically use silicon carbide fibers embedded in a matrix
made from an alloy of aluminum and magnesium, but other matrix materials such
as titanium, copper, and iron are increasingly being used.
• Typical applications of MMCs include bicycles, golf clubs, and missile guidance systems; an
MMC made from silicon-carbide fibers in a titanium matrix is currently being developed for
use as the skin (fuselage material) of the US National Aerospace Plane.
• Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples include silicon
carbide fibers fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass.
• The ceramic matrix makes them particularly suitable for use in lightweight, high-temperature
components, such as parts for airplane jet engines.
 Ceramics
• Ceramics once referred purely to pottery and to articles made by firing materials extracted from Earth.
• Today, Ceramics are generally thought of as inorganic and nonmetallic solids with a range of useful properties,
including very high hardness and strength, extremely high melting points, and good electrical and thermal
insulation.
• The best-known ceramics are pottery, glass, brick, porcelain, and cement.
• At one end of the scale, ceramics include simple materials such as graphite and diamond, made up from different
crystalline arrangements of the element carbon.
• But at the other end of the scale, complex crystals of yttrium, barium, copper, and oxygen make up the advanced
ceramics used in so-called high-temperature superconductors (materials with almost no electrical resistance).
• Most ceramics fall somewhere between these extremes.
• Many are metal oxides, crystalline compounds of a metal element and oxygen.
• Others are silicides, borides, carbides, and nitrides, respectively made from silicon, boron, carbon, and nitrogen.
• Some of the most advanced ceramic materials are combinations of ceramics and other materials known as
ceramic matrix composites (CMCs).
 Cermet = Ceramic + metal
• Why would you want to combine a metal and a ceramic?
• Metals, though versatile, aren't capable of withstanding the incredibly high
temperatures you typically encounter in airplane jet engines or space rockets.
• Ceramics are brilliant at high temperatures and able to resist attack by
chemicals and things like oxygen in the air, but their sheer inertness means
they're just pretty boring most of the time.
• Brilliant for teapots and false teeth, but fairly hopeless when it comes to doing
interesting things like conducting electricity or heat or bending and flexing.
• If you want something that can survive in really tough environments and still
behave in interesting ways, you need to switch your attention to things
like alloys, composites—and cermets.
 Course Contents
• Theory of Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Relationship between Stress and Deformation,
• Principal of Stress-Strain Curves,
• Introduction to Stress Strain Diagram,
• Working Stresses,
• Analysis of bi-axial Stresses,
• Mohr’s circles of Bi-axial Stress.
• Strain Energy in Tension and Compression
 Course Contents
• Unsymmetrical Bending and Shearing
• Horizontal Shearing Stresses,
• Shear Flow,
• Flow deflection due to Shear,
• Moment of Inertia along Different Axes.
• Ellipse of Inertia,
 Course Contents
• Determination of Principal Axes.
• Principal Planes,
• General case of Plane Stresses,
• Principal Stress in Shear Stresses due to combined Bending and Torsion
Plane Strain.
• Torsion of Circular Shafts,
• Torsion of non-circular Sections.
• Stresses in thin walled Pressure Vessels.
• Strain Energy in Shear and Torsion of thin walled tubes,
 Course Contents
• Fault plate,
• Rectangular and Circular plates sample supported and clamped at the
ends,
• Thermal Stresses,
• Buckling.
• Photo-elastic Method.
• Unit Design,
• Coiled Helical Spring,
 Recommended Books
• William Nash, Merle C Potter, “Strength of Materials”, The McGraw Hill
• P. P. Benham, R. J. Crawford and J. P. Armstrong, “Mechanics of
Engineering Materials”, Pitman, 2000.
• F. P. Beer, “Mechanics of Materials”, McGraw-Hill, 2005.
• M. F. Ashby and D. R. H. Jones, “Engineering Materials 1: An
Introduction to Their Properties and Applications”, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2005.
• M.Vable, “Mechanics of Materials”, OUP, 2002.
• J. M. Gere and S. P. Timoshenko, “Mechanics of Materials”, PWS Kent,
1997.
• Materials
• Stresses
• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
• Bending
 Examples of materials selection
• A typical screwdriver has a shaft and blade made of carbon steel, a metal.
• Steel is chosen because its modulus is high. The modulus measures the resistance of the material
to elastic deflection or bending.
• If you made the shaft out of a polymer like polyethylene instead, it would twist far too much.
• A high modulus is one criterion in the selection of a material for this application.
• But it is not the only one. The shaft must have a high yield strength.
• If it does not, it will bend or twist if you turn it hard (bad screwdrivers do).
• And the blade must have a high hardness, otherwise it will be damaged by the head of the screw.
• Finally, the material of the shaft and blade must not only do all these things, it must also resist
fracture
• Glass, for instance, has a high modulus, yield strength, and hardness, but it would not be a good
choice for this application because it is so brittle.
• More precisely, it has a very low fracture toughness.
• That of the steel is high, meaning that it gives a bit before it breaks.
 Examples of materials selection
• The handle of the screwdriver is made of a polymer or plastic, in this instance polymethylmethacrylate,
otherwise known as PMMA, plexiglass or perspex.
• The handle has a much larger section than the shaft, so its twisting, and thus its modulus, is less important.
• You could not make it satisfactorily out of a soft rubber (another polymer) because its modulus is much too
low, although a thin skin of rubber might be useful because its friction coefficient is high, making it easy to
grip.
• Traditionally, of course, tool handles were made of another natural polymer — wood — and, if you measure
importance by the volume consumed per year, wood is still by far the most important polymer available to the
engineer.
• Wood has been replaced by PMMA because PMMA becomes soft when hot and can be molded quickly and
easily to its final shape.
• Its ease of fabrication for this application is high.
• It is also chosen for aesthetic reasons: its appearance, and feel or texture, are right; and its density is low, so that
the screw driver is not unnecessarily heavy.
• Finally, PMMA is cheap, and this allows the product to be made at a reasonable price.
 Examples of materials selection
• A second example from low technology to the
advanced materials design involved in the
turbofan aero engines which power large
planes.
• Air is propelled past (and into) the engine by
the turbofan, providing aerodynamic thrust.
• The air is further compressed by the
compressor blades, and is then mixed with fuel
and burnt in the combustion chamber.
• The expanding gases drive the turbine blades,
which provide power to the turbofan and the
compressor blades, and finally pass out of the
rear of the engine, adding to the thrust.
 Examples of materials selection
• The turbofan blades are made from a titanium alloy, a metal.
• This has a sufficiently good modulus, yield strength, and fracture toughness.
• But the metal must also resist fatigue (due to rapidly fluctuating loads), surface wear (from
striking everything from water droplets to large birds) and corrosion (important when taking
off over the sea because salt spray enters the engine).
• Finally, density is extremely important for obvious reasons: the heavier the engine, the less
the payload the plane can carry.
• In an effort to reduce weight even further, composite blades made of carbon-fiber reinforced
polymers (CFRP) with density less than one-half of that of titanium, have been tried.
• But CFRP, by itself is simply not tough enough for turbofan blades — a ‘‘bird strike’’
demolishes a CFRP blade.
• The problem can be overcome by cladding, giving the CFRP a metallic leading edge.
 Examples of materials selection
• Turning to the turbine blades (those in the hottest part of the engine)
even more material requirements must be satisfied.
• For economy the fuel must be burnt at as high a temperature as
possible.
• The first row of engine blades (the ‘‘HP1’’ blades) runs at metal
temperatures of about 950C, requiring resistance to creep and to
oxidation.
• Nickel-based alloys of complicated chemistry and structure are used
for this exceedingly stringent application; they are one pinnacle of
advanced materials technology.
 Examples of materials selection
• An example which brings in somewhat
different requirements is the spark plug of an
internal combustion engine.
• The spark electrodes must resist thermal fatigue
(from rapidly fluctuating temperatures), wear
(caused by spark erosion), and oxidation and
corrosion from hot upper-cylinder gases
containing nasty compounds of sulphur.
• Tungsten alloys are used for the electrodes
because they have the desired properties.
 Examples of materials selection
• The insulation around the central electrode is an example of a
nonmetallic material — in this case, alumina, a ceramic.
• This is chosen because of its electrical insulating properties and
because it also has good thermal fatigue resistance and resistance to
corrosion and oxidation (it is an oxide already).
 Assignment I
• Design of a sailing Cruiser
• Different parts of the Cruise
• Selection of Material
• Properties
 Axially Loaded Bar
• Consider a metal bar of constant cross section, loaded at its ends by a
pair of oppositely directed forces coinciding with the longitudinal axis
of the bar and acting through the centroid of each cross section.
• For static equilibrium the magnitudes of the forces must be equal. If
the forces are directed away from the bar, the bar is said to be in
tension; if they are directed toward the bar, a state of compression
exists.
 Axially Loaded Bar
• Under the action of this pair of applied forces, internal resisting forces are set up within the bar and their characteristics
may be studied by imagining a plane to be passed through the bar anywhere along its length and oriented perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the bar. Such a plane is designated as a-a.

• If for purposes of analysis the portion of the bar to the right of this plane is considered to be removed, as in Fig, then it
must be replaced by whatever effect it exerts upon the left portion.

• By this technique of introducing a cutting plane, the originally internal forces now become external with respect to the
remaining portion of the body.
• For equilibrium of the portion to the left this ‘‘effect’’ must be a horizontal force of magnitude P.
• However, this force P acting normal to the cross section a-a is actually the resultant of distributed forces acting over
this cross section in a direction normal to it.
• At this point it is necessary to make some assumption that the applied force P acts through the centroid it is commonly
assumed that they are uniform across the cross section.
 Normal Stress
• Instead of speaking of the internal force acting on some small element of area, it is better
for comparative purposes to treat the normal force acting over a unit area of the cross
section.
• The intensity of normal force per unit area is termed the normal stress and is expressed
in units of force per unit area, N/m2.
• If the forces applied to the ends of the bar are such that the bar is in tension, then tensile
stresses are set up in the bar; if the bar is in compression we have compressive stresses.
• The line of action of the applied end forces passes through the centroid of each cross
section of the bar.
 Normal Strain
• Let us suppose that the bar has tensile forces gradually applied to the ends.
• The elongation per unit length, which is termed normal strain and denoted
by ε, may be found by dividing the total elongation ∆ by the length L, i.e.,
ε = ∆/L
• The strain is usually expressed in units of meters per meter and
consequently is dimensionless.
 Engineering vs. True
• Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a material.
Also known as nominal stress. 

• True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing area with
respect to time) of the specimen at that load 

• Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test. Also
known as nominal strain. 

• True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current length over the original length

• Where P is original load, A is cross sectional area of specimen before deformation, A 0 is cross-
sectional area of specimen at which the load is applied, is total elongation, L 0 original value of
the gage length and L is successive values of the length as it changes
• When SI units are used, force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in
square meters (m2).
• Consequently, stress has units of newtons per square meter (N/m2),
that is, pascals (Pa).
• However, the pascal is such a small unit of stress that it is necessary to
work with large multiples, usually the megapascal (MPa).
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
 Stress-Strain Curve
• As the axial load is gradually increased, the total elongation over the bar
length is measured at each increment of load and this is continued until
fracture of the specimen takes place.
• Knowing the original cross-sectional area of the test specimen, the normal
stress, denoted by σ, may be obtained for any value of
the axial load by the use of the relation
Ϭ = P/ A
• where P denotes the axial load in Newton and A the original cross-sectional
area
 Stress-Strain Curve
• Having obtained numerous pairs of values of normal stress Ϭ and
normal strain ε, experimental data may be plotted with these quantities
considered as ordinate and abscissa (ab-sis-uh), respectively.
• This is the stress-strain curve or diagram of the material for this type
of loading.
• Stress-strain diagrams assume widely differing forms for various
materials.
 Stress-Strain Curve
• The stress-strain diagram for a medium-carbon structural steel,
• The stress-strain diagram for an alloy steel,
 Stress-Strain Curve
• The stress-strain diagram for hard steels and certain nonferrous alloys.
• The stress-strain diagram for a For nonferrous alloys and cast iron.
 Ductile and Brittle Materials
• Metallic engineering materials are commonly classified as either
• ductile or
• brittle materials.
• A ductile material is one having a relatively large tensile strain up to the point of
rupture (for example, structural steel or aluminum)
• Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness) before fracture.
• Characteristic feature of ductile material - necking
• whereas a brittle material has a relatively small strain up to this same point.
• Little plastic deformation or energy absorption before fracture.
• Characteristic feature of brittle materials – fracture surface perpendicular to the stress.
• An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line between
these two classes of materials.
• Cast iron and concrete are examples of brittle materials.
 Hooke’s Law
• For any material having a stress-strain curve, it is evident that the
relation between stress and strain is linear for comparatively small
values of the strain.
• This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing it is
called Hooke’s law.
• To describe this initial linear range of action of the material we may
consequently write
Ϭ = Eε
• where E denotes the slope of the straight-line portion of the curve.
 Young’s Modulus
• The quantity E, i.e., the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain, is the
modulus of elasticity of the material in tension, or, as it is often called,
Young’s modulus.
• Since the unit strain ε is a pure number.
• E has the same units as does the stress, N/m2.
• For many common engineering materials the modulus of elasticity in
compression is very nearly equal to that found in tension.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Proportional Limit
The ordinate of the point P is known as the proportional
limit, i.e., the maximum stress that may be developed
during a simple tension test such that the stress is a
linear function of strain.
• For some materials having the stress-strain curve, there
is no proportional limit.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Elastic Limit
The ordinate of a point almost coincident with P is known as the
elastic limit, i.e., the maximum stress that may be developed during a
simple tension test such that there is no permanent or residual
deformation when the load is entirely removed.
• For many materials the numerical values of the elastic limit and the
proportional limit are almost identical and the terms are sometimes
used synonymously.
• In those cases where the distinction between the two values is evident,
the elastic limit is almost always greater than the proportional limit
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Elastic and Plastic Ranges
The region of the stress-strain curve extending from the
origin to the proportional limit is called the elastic
range.
• The region of the stress-strain curve extending from the
proportional limit to the point of rupture is
called the plastic range.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Yield Point
The ordinate of the point Y, denoted by σyp at which there is an
increase in strain with no increase in stress, is known as the
yield point of the material.
• After loading has progressed to the point Y, yielding (material
begins to deform plastically) is said to take place.
• Some materials exhibit two points on the stress-strain curve at
which there is an increase of strain without an increase of stress.
• These are called
• upper yield points and
• lower yield points.
Yield Point Phenomenon
• Mild steels having considerable amount of carbon atoms
as interstitials have yield point phenomenon.
• As the material is loaded and it reaches its proportional
limit, dislocations generated gets locked by these
interstitial atoms.
• Stress needed to free these dislocations increases till it
reaches a critical level which is upper yield point.
• As it reaches UYP large amount of disloctions gets
unpinned and thus stress drops.
• The stress at which it drops is called as lower yield point.
• Eventually the preceding dislocations sometimes go
through a series of locking and unlocking process at the
same LYP which is manifested in the curve as short
serrations over a period of strain.
• This is called Luders band propagation.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Ultimate Strength or Tensile Strength
The ordinate of the point U, the maximum ordinate to
the curve, is known either as the ultimate strength or the
tensile strength of the material.

• Breaking Strength
The ordinate of the point B is called the breaking
strength of the material.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Modulus of Resilience
The work done on a unit volume of material, as a simple
tensile force is gradually increased from zero
to such a value that the proportional limit of the material is
reached, is defined as the modulus of resilience.
• This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve from the origin up to the proportional limit
and is represented as the shaded area in Fig.
• The unit of this quantity is Nm/m3 in the SI system.
• Thus, resilience of a material is its ability to absorb energy in
the elastic range.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Modulus of Toughness
The work done on a unit volume of material as a simple
tensile force is gradually increased from zero to the
value causing rupture is defined as the modulus of toughness.
• This may be calculated as the entire area under
the stress-strain curve from the origin to rupture.
• Toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in
the plastic range of the material.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Percentage Reduction in Area
The decrease in cross-sectional area from the original area upon
fracture divided by the original area and multiplied by 100 is
termed percentage reduction in area.
• When tensile forces act upon a bar, the cross-sectional area
decreases, but calculations for the normal stress are usually made
upon the basis of the original area.
• As the strains become increasingly larger it is more important to
consider the instantaneous values of the cross-sectional area (which
are decreasing), and if this is done the true stress-strain curve is
obtained.
• Such a curve has the appearance shown by the dashed line.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Percentage Elongation
The increase in length of a bar after fracture divided by
the initial length and multiplied by 100 is the percentage
elongation.
• Both the percentage reduction in area and the percentage
elongation are considered to be measures of the ductility
of a material.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Working Stress
The above-mentioned strength characteristics may be used
to select a working stress. Frequently such a stress
is determined merely by dividing either the stress at yield
or the ultimate stress by a number termed the safety
factor. Selection of the safety factor is based upon the
designer’s judgment and experience. Specific safety
factors are sometimes specified in design codes.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Strain Hardening
If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond
the yield point without failure, it is said to strain
harden.
• This is true of many structural metals.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Yield Strength
The ordinate to the stress-strain curve such that the material has a
predetermined permanent deformation or ‘‘set’’ when the load is
removed is called the yield strength of the material.
• The permanent set is often taken to be either 0.002 or 0.0035 mm per
mm.
• In Fig below a set ε1 is denoted on the strain axis and the line O′Y is
drawn parallel to the initial tangent to the curve.
• The ordinate of Y represents the yield strength of the material, sometimes
called the proof stress.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Tangent Modulus
The rate of change of stress with respect to strain is
known as the tangent modulus of the material.
• It is essentially an instantaneous modulus given by
Et = dσ/dε
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Coefficient of Linear Expansion
This is defined as the change of length per unit length of a
straight bar subject to a temperature change of one degree and is
usually denoted by α.
• The value of this coefficient is independent of the unit of length
but does depend upon the temperature scale used.
• The coefficient for steel is 12 × 10–6/°C.
• Temperature changes in a structure give rise to internal stresses,
just as do applied loads.
• The thermal strain due to a temperature change ∆T is
εt = α ∆T
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Poisson’s Ratio
When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there is an
increase in length of the bar in the direction
of the load, but a decrease in the lateral dimensions perpendicular to
the load.
• The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to that in the axial
direction is defined as Poisson’s ratio.
• It is denoted by the Greek letter ν.
• For most metals it lies in the range 0.25 to 0.35.
• For cork, ν is very nearly zero.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Poisson’s Ratio for
• structural materials 0.0 ≤ ν < 0.5
• For most metals 0.25–0.35
• For concrete and ceramics, 0.10
• For cork 0
• For rubber, 0.5 to 3
• A material for which ν = 0.5 is called incompressible
 Hooke’s Law from Compliance
Homogeneous, Isotropic, Linearly Elastic
sy sy
sz

sx sx sx sx

yx
sz
sy
y x sy
z
z 
1 
x direction x  x  y  z
E E E
 1 
y direction y   x  y  z
E E E
  1
z direction z   x  y  z
E E E
 price and availability affect the choice of
material
• As an example of how price and availability affect the choice of material for a particular job,
consider how the materials used for building bridges in Cambridge have changed over the centuries.
• As our photograph of Queens’ Bridge (Figure 1.6) suggests, until 150 years or so ago wood was
commonly used for bridge building.
• It was cheap, and high-quality timber was still available in large sections from natural forests.
• Stone, too, as the picture of Clare Bridge (Figure 1.7) shows, was widely used.
• In the eighteenth century the ready availability of cast iron, with its relatively low assembly costs,
led to many cast-iron bridges of the type exemplified by Magdalene Bridge (Figure 1.8).
• Metallurgical developments of the later nineteenth century allowed large mild-steel structures to be
built (the Fort St George footbridge, Figure 1.9).
• Finally, the advent of cheap reinforced concrete led to graceful and durable structures like that of the
Garret Hostel Lane bridge (Figure 1.10).
• This evolution clearly illustrates how availability influences the choice of materials.
• Nowadays, wood, steel, and reinforced concrete are often used interchangeably in structures,
reflecting the relatively small price differences between them.
• The choice of which of the three materials to use is mainly dictated by the kind of structure
the architect wishes to build:
• chunky and solid (stone),
• structurally efficient (steel),
• slender, and graceful (pre-stressed concrete).
• Engineering design, then, involves many considerations (Figure 1.11).
• The choice of a material must meet certain criteria on bulk and surface properties (e.g.
strength and corrosion resistance).
• But it must also be easy to fabricate; it must appeal to potential consumers; and it must
compete economically with other alternative materials.
• When a load is applied to thin hanging wire, it elongates and the load moves downwards (sometimes through a negligible
distance).
• The amount, by which the wire elongates, depends upon the amount of load and the nature as well as the cross sectional
area of the wire material.
• It has been experimentally found that the cohesive force, between molecules of the hanging wire, offers resistance against
the deformation and the force of resistance increases with the deformation.
• It has also been observed that the process of deformation stops when the force of resistance is equal to the external force
(i.e. the load attached)
• Sometimes the force of resistance, offered by the molecules, is less than the external force.
• In such a case, the deformation continues until failure takes place.
• When the external force is removed, the force of resistance also vanishes, and the body springs back to its original
position..
• But it is only possible, if the deformation, caused by the external fore, is within a certain limit
• Such a limit is called Elastic Limit
• The property of certain materials of returning back to their original position, after removing the external force, is known as
Elasticity.
• consider a free body of cylindrical shape.
• When drawing this free-body diagram, we disregard the
weight of the bar itself and assume that the only active
forces are the axial forces P at the ends.
• Next we consider two views of the bar, the first showing
the same bar before the loads are applied (b) and the
second showing it after the loads are applied (c).
• Note that the original length of the bar is denoted by the
letter L, and the increase in length due to the loads is
denoted by the Greek letter δ (delta)
• The internal actions in the bar are exposed if we make an
imaginary cut through the bar at section mn.
• Because this section is taken perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the bar, it is called a cross section.
• This action consists of continuously distributed stresses
acting over the entire cross section, and the axial force P
acting at the cross section is the resultant of those
stresses.
 Stress
• Stress has units of force per unit area and is denoted by the Greek letter Ϭ
(sigma).
• In general, the stresses Ϭ acting on a plane surface may be uniform
throughout the area or may vary in intensity from one point to another.
• Let us assume that the stresses acting on cross section mn are uniformly
distributed over the area.
• Then the resultant of those stresses must be equal to the magnitude of the
stress times the cross-sectional area A of the bar, that is,
P = Ϭ A.
• Therefore, we obtain the following expression for the magnitude of the
stresses:
Ϭ = P/ A.
• When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the stresses are tensile
stresses; if the forces are reversed in direction, causing the bar to be
compressed, we obtain compressive stresses.
• As the stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they
are called normal stresses.
• Thus, normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive.
• We encounter another type of stress, called shear stress, that acts
parallel to the surface.
• When a sign convention for normal stresses is required, it is customary
to define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative
 Limitations

• The equation Ϭ = P/ A is valid only if the stress is uniformly distributed over the cross section of
the bar.
• This condition is realized if the axial force P acts through the centroid of the cross-sectional
area.
• When the load P does not act at the centroid, bending of the bar will result, and a more
complicated analysis is necessary.
• The uniform stress condition in Fig. exists throughout the length of the bar except near the ends.
• The stress distribution at the end of a bar depends upon how the load P is transmitted to the bar.
• If the load happens to be distributed uniformly over the end, then the stress pattern at the end
will be the same as everywhere else.
• However, it is more likely that the load is transmitted through a pin or a bolt, producing high
localized stresses called stress concentrations.
• One possibility is illustrated by the eyebar shown in Fig.
• In this instance the loads P are transmitted to the bar by pins that pass
through the holes (or eyes) at the ends of the bar.
• Thus, the forces shown in the figure are actually the resultants of
bearing pressures between the pins and the eyebar, and the stress
distribution around the holes is quite complex. However, as we move
away from the ends and toward the middle of the bar, the stress
distribution gradually approaches the uniform distribution pictured in
Fig.
 Normal Strain
• A straight bar will change in length when loaded axially,
becoming longer when in tension and shorter when in
compression.
• For instance, consider again the prismatic bar of Fig. 1-2.
• The elongation δ of this bar (c) is the cumulative result of the
stretching of all elements of the material throughout the volume
of the bar.
• Let us assume that the material is the same everywhere in the bar.
• Then, if we consider half of the bar (length L/2), it will have an
elongation equal to δ /2, and if we consider one-fourth of the bar,
it will have an elongation equal to δ/4.
• In general, the elongation of a segment is equal to its length divided by the
total length L and multiplied by the total elongation δ.
• Therefore, a unit length of the bar will have an elongation equal to 1/L times δ.
• This quantity is called the elongation per unit length, or strain, and is denoted
by the Greek letter ε (epsilon).
• In general, the elongation of a segment is equal to its length divided by the
total length Land multiplied by the total elongation d. Therefore, a
• unit length of the bar will have an elongation equal to 1/L times d. This
• quantity is called the elongation per unit length, or strain, and is denoted
• by the Greek letter ε (epsilon).