FISIOLOGI TUMBUHAN

ANDI RAHMAT SALEH, S.PD., M.PD.

CAPAIAN PEMBELAJARAN MATAKULIAH

Mendeskripsikan pengetahuan tentang konsep fotoperiodisme dan

vernalisasi
Kerja jam biologi
Waktu perbungaan
Vernalisasi
FOTOPERIODISME

William E. Bradshaw, Christina M. Holzapfel, in Advances in

Genetics, 2017, Photoperiodism is the ability of plants and animals to
use the length of day or night, resulting in modification of their
activities.
Kazuyoshi Tsutsui, Takayoshi Ubuka, in Encyclopedia of
Reproduction (Second Edition), 2018. Photoperiodism is an
organisms’ ability to adjust their physiology and behavior to seasonal
changes in the environment according to the length of day
(photoperiod), because photoperiod is the most reliable information to
detect the time of year.
FOTOPERIODISME

Pedro Pérez-Bermúdez, Alejandro Rognoni Martínez, in Current

Applications, Approaches, and Potential Perspectives for Hemp,
2023. Photoperiodism is the capacity that plants have to detect and
adapt to seasonal changes in day length
B. Thomas, in Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences (Second
Edition), 2017, photoperiodism is the response to changes in
daylength that enables plants to adapt to seasonal changes in their
environment.
FOTOPERIODISME

The best studied example of photoperiodism in plants is flowering,

but other responses to daylength include bud dormancy and bulb or
tuber initiation.
Seasonal flowering in response to daylength helps species to adapt
to particular habitats and synchronize flowering for maximum
pollination efficiency.
Daylength is perceived in leaves, while the response occurs
elsewhere in the plant.
FOTOPERIODISME

In 1920 two employees of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, W.

W. Garner and H. A. Allard, discovered a mutation in tobacco - a
variety called Maryland Mammoth - that prevented the plant from
flowering in the summer as normal tobacco plants do.
Maryland Mammoth would not bloom until late December.
Experimenting with artificial lighting in winter and artificial
darkening in summer, they found that Maryland Mammoth was
affected by photoperiod.
FOTOPERIODISME

Based on the response to the daylength, plants can be divided into 3

categories:
Short Day Plant: chrysanthemum, rice, Xanthium
Long Day Plant: spinach, beet, arabidopsis
Neutral Day Plant: tomato, cucumbers, strawberries, corn
FOTOPERIODISME
FOTOPERIODISME
FOTOPERIODISME
Phytochrome is a homodimer: two identical protein molecules each conjugated to a
light-absorbing molecule
Plants make 5 phytochromes: PhyA, PhyB, as well as C, D, and E.
Phytochromes exist in two interconvertible forms
PR because it absorbs red (R; 660 nm) light
PFR because it absorbs far-red (FR; 730 nm) light

These are the relationships:

Absorption of red light by PR converts it into PFR.
Absorption of far-red light by PFR converts it into PR.
In the dark, PFR spontaneously converts back to PR.
FOTOPERIODISME
Phytochrome is a homodimer: two identical protein molecules each conjugated to a
light-absorbing molecule
Plants make 5 phytochromes: PhyA, PhyB, as well as C, D, and E.
Phytochromes exist in two interconvertible forms
PR because it absorbs red (R; 660 nm) light
PFR because it absorbs far-red (FR; 730 nm) light

These are the relationships:

Absorption of red light by PR converts it into PFR.
Absorption of far-red light by PFR converts it into PR.
In the dark, PFR spontaneously converts back to PR.
FOTOPERIODISME

The behavior of phytochrome provided the first model - called the hourglass
model - of the mechanism of photoperiodism in short-day plants.
Sunlight is richer in red (660 nm) than far-red (730 nm) light, so at sundown all
the phytochrome is PFR.
During the night, the PFR converts back to PR.
The PR form is needed for the release of the flowering signal.
Therefore, the cocklebur needs 8.5 hours of darkness in which to
convert all the PFR present at sundown into PR
carry out the supplementary reactions leading to the release of the flowering
signal ("florigen").
FOTOPERIODISME

If this process is interrupted by a flash of 660-nm light, the PR is

immediately reconverted to PFR and the night's work is undone
A subsequent exposure to far-red (730 nm) light converts the
pigment back to PR and the steps leading to the release of
"florigen" can be completed
Exposure to intense far-red light at the beginning of the night sets
the clock ahead about 2 hours or so by eliminating the need for the
spontaneous conversion of PFR to PR
FOTOPERIODISME
FOTOPERIODISME

Recent work mostly in the long-day plant, Arabidopsis - supports a different

model of photoperiodism.
This work suggests that the photoperiodic response is governed by the
interaction of daylight with innate circadian rhythms of the plant.
Virtually all eukaryotes have innate circadian rhythms.
These are rhythms of biological activities that fluctuate over a period of
approximately 24 hours (L. circa = about; dies = day) even under constant
environmental conditions (e.g. continuous darkness).
Under constant conditions, the cycles may drift out of phase with the
environment.
FOTOPERIODISME

However, when exposed to the environment (e.g., alternating day

and night), the rhythms become entrained; that is, they now cycle in
lockstep with the cycle of day and night with a period of exactly 24
hours.
In Arabidopsis, the entrainment of the rhythms requires that light is
detected by the
phytochromes (absorb red light)
cryptochromes (absorb blue light)
FOTOPERIODISME

Plants, like so many other organisms,

have an innate circadian rhythm that
regulates the expression of many
genes.
Among these in Arabidopsis is
CONSTANS (CO), a gene that
encodes a zinc-finger transcription
factor whose levels of mRNA rise and
fall with a circadian rhythm.
FOTOPERIODISME

Translation of CONSTANS mRNA

produces the transcription factor that turns
on a number of genes, including
FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), a gene
needed to start the conversion of apical
buds into flower buds.
CONSTANS messenger RNA (mRNA) is
abundant early in the morning, declines
during the middle part of the day and then
rises to another peak late in the afternoon.
FOTOPERIODISME

the CONSTANS protein is quickly

degraded (in proteasomes) during the
morning and middle part of the day
and also during the night.
The degradation triggered by
morning light (rich in 660 nm rays) is
mediated by phytochrome B (PhyB).
FOTOPERIODISME

By late in the afternoon, if the day has been long

enough,
 transcription of the CO gene increases
producing a rise in CO mRNA
 translation of the CO mRNA produces more CO
protein which is
 no longer degraded.

These effects are mediated by the absorption of

 red (enriched in far-red) light by phytochrome A
(PhyA)
 blue light by cryptochrome.
FOTOPERIODISME

Now with the CONSTANS protein accumulating,

it is available to turn on the gene transcription
(e.g., FT) needed for the induction of the
flowering.
In short days, with darkness falling before the rise
in CONSTANS mRNA, there is not enough
CONSTANS protein synthesized to induce
flowering.
So flowering in Arabidopsis seems to require the
interaction of daylight perceived by phytochromes
and cryptochromes with the intrinsic circadian
rhythm of CONSTANS expression.
FOTOPERIODISME
FOTOPERIODISME
VERNALISASI

vernalization, the artificial exposure of plants (or seeds) to low

temperatures in order to stimulate flowering or to enhance seed
production (Britannica.com)
Vernalization is derived from a Latin word “vernus” which means
“of spring”.
It means to make “spring-like”. It is the induction of the flowering
process of the plant by exposure to the long periods of cold winter
or such conditions.
VERNALISASI

In the process of vernalization, flowering is facilitated by a cold

treatment provided to a completely hydrated seed or to a growing
plant.
As a result of the process of vernalization, the vegetative phase of
the plant is restricted, which leads to early flowering.
In the absence of cold treatment, those plants which need
vernalization exhibit delayed flowering or stay vegetative.
VERNALISASI
VERNALISASI

Plants grown in mild climates germinate at low temperatures,

whereas plants in hot climates germinate at high temperatures.
Some plants require low temperatures to germinate. Furthermore,
exposing a plant to low temperatures during the growing season can
be induced to flower.
As a result, it shortens the vegetative phase and accelerates
flowering in plants.
VERNALISASI

Wheat and barley, for example, have a 'spring variety' and a 'winter
variety.' The 'spring variety' is typically planted in the spring.
As a result, it has flowered and produced grains by the end of the
growing season.
On the other hand, the 'winter variety' is planted in the autumn.
It sprouts in the winter, grows in the spring, and is harvested in the
summer.
In contrast to the spring variety, the winter variety will not flower or
start producing grains during the flowering season if planted in spring.
VERNALISASI

Here are the mechanism of vernalizaton:

Perception of Cold: Plants have receptors that can detect and respond to low
temperatures. Cold perception triggers a signaling cascade that initiates the
vernalization process.
Suppression of Repressors: One of the critical steps in vernalization is the
suppression of genes that act as repressors of flowering. These genes, such as
FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) in Arabidopsis thaliana, normally inhibit the transition
to flowering during the vegetative phase.
Epigenetic Modifications: Vernalization induces epigenetic changes in the chromatin
structure of the repressor genes. One common epigenetic modification is the
methylation of histones, which can lead to gene silencing or altered gene expression.
VERNALISASI
Here are the mechanism of vernalizaton:
Activation of Flowering Pathway: As the repressor genes are silenced or their
expression is reduced, genes associated with flowering promotion are activated. This
includes the activation of floral meristem identity genes and floral integrator genes.
Hormonal Regulation: Hormones play a crucial role in vernalization. Gibberellins
(GA) and other hormones are involved in promoting the transition from vegetative to
reproductive growth. The balance of hormone signaling pathways is crucial for
coordinating the flowering response.
Environmental Interaction: Vernalization is influenced by environmental factors such
as light and photoperiod. The interaction between cold temperatures and photoperiod
signals helps determine the timing of flowering and ensures that plants flower at the
appropriate season.