09 CNS Edit NoQues

Human Physiology, An Integrated Approach
Eighth Edition
Chapter 9
The Central Nervous
System
About This Chapter
9.1 Emergent Properties of Neural Networks
9.2 Evolution of Nervous Systems
9.3 Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
9.4 The Spinal Cord
9.5 The Brain
9.6 Brain Function
Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
9.1 Emergent Properties of Neural Networks
• Plasticity is the restructure of the brain networks in response to
sensory input and experience.
– ability to change circuit connections and function in response to
sensory input and past experience
How can simply linking neurons together create
• Affective behaviors
– related to feeling and emotion
• Cognitive behaviors
– related to thinking
9.2 Evolution of Nervous Systems
• Unicellular organisms do not have integrating centers, but use resting membrane potentials to
coordinate activity
• Jellyfish and sea anemones (Cnidaria) possess a nervous system termed a nerve net
• Flatworms exhibit primitive brains and nerve cords
• Earthworm (Annelids) have simple brains and ganglia along nerve cords (brain and ganglia both
of which can integrate info and make responses)
– Simple reflexes can be integrated at the ganglia without the brain
– Complex brains are associated with complex behaviors
• In vertebrate evolution, the most dramatic change is seen in the forebrain region, which
includes the cerebrum (complex thoughts)
9.3 Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
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Development of the Human Nervous System
The CNS Is Divided into Gray and White Matter
• The CNS consists of the
brain and the spinal cord.
Where we do most of our processing
• Gray matter – cerebellum
nucleus in the surface
– Unmyelinated nerve
cell bodies
▪ Clusters of cell
bodies in the CNS
are nuclei
– Dendrites
– Axon terminals
• White matter
– Myelinated axons
– Axon bundles
connecting CNS
regions are tracts
▪ Contain very few
cell bodies
Bone and Connective Tissue Support the CNS
• Brain is encased in bony skull, or cranium - prrotection
• Spinal cord runs through vertebral column

– Bony vertebrae: sacked up one top of each other and separated by
disks of connective tissue
• Meninges lie between bone and tissues to stabilize neural tissue and protect
from bruising against the skeleton
– Dura mater – thickest – associated with veins that drain blood from brain
through vessels or cavities called sinuses – outer membrane
– Arachnoid membrane – where we get a lot of our cerebrospinal fluid –
loosely tied to the inner membrane leaving a subarachnoid space between
the two layers
– Pia mater - thin membrane that adheres to the surface of the brain
and spinal cord. Arteries that supply blood to the brain are
associated with this layer
The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Salty solution similar to plasma
• Produced by the choroid plexus in the

ventricles
• Function in physical and chemical protection
• Surrounds entire brain

– Contained within subarachnoid space
(between arachnoid membrane and pia
mater)
– Flows from ventricles to subarachnoid
space to return to plasma by villi
The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Surrounds entire brain
– Contained within
subarachnoid space
(between arachnoid
membrane and pia
mater)
– Flows from ventricles
to subarachnoid
space to return to
plasma (go into
venous sinus) by villi
The Blood-Brain Barrier Protects the Brain
Blood-Brain Barrier
• Highly selective
permeability of
brain capillaries
• Astrocytes foot
processes promote
tight junctions
between
endothelial cells
• Protects brain
from toxic water
soluble compounds
and pathogens
Between
• Small lipid-soluble endothelial cells
molecules cross
the blood-brain
barrier
Forms tight junction
Neural Tissue Has Special Metabolic Requirements
• Neurons need a constant supply of oxygen and glucose
• Brain receives 15% of blood pumped by heart
• Oxygen
– Passes freely across blood–brain barrier
• Glucose
– Membrane transporters move glucose from plasma into the brain
interstitial fluid
– Brain responsible for about half of body’s glucose consumption
– Progressive hypoglycemia leads to confusion, unconsciousness,
and death.
9.4 The Spinal Cord (1 of 2)
• Segments associated with spinal nerves
– Spinal nerve branches into two roots
– Dorsal root neurons carry sensory information
▪ Dorsal root ganglia contain afferent (sensory) nuclei going into the CNS
▪ Afferent neurons connect with interneurons in the dorsal horns
– Ventral roots carry motor information from the CNS to muscles and glands.
Gray matter
– Dorsal horns contain visceral & somatic sensory nuclei.
– Lateral horns contain visceral motor nuclei.
– Ventral horns contain somatic motor nuclei.
• White Matter – axons that are moving through the CNS

– Divided into columns of tracts
– Ascending tracts take sensory information to the brain
– Descending tracts carry motor signals from the brain.
– Propriospinal tracts stay in the cord
• Spinal reflexes are integrated in the spinal cord.

Figure 9.6 Organization of the spinal cord
Figure 9.7
Spinal reflexes
In addition, spinal
interneurons may route
sensory information to the
brain through ascending
tracts or bring commands
from the brain to motor
neurons.
In many cases, the

interneurons also modify
information as it passes
through them.
Spinal Reflexes play a critical

role in the coordination of
body movement
9.5 The Brain
• The brain stem is the oldest part of the brain
• 11 of 12 cranial nerves originate from the
brain stem
• Cranial nerves can include sensory fibers,

efferent fibers, or both (mixed nerves).
–Example: vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) is a
mixed nerve
–Many nuclei in the brain stem are associated
with reticular formation
▪Controls wakefulness, sleep, muscle tone,
pain modulation
The Brain Stem
Medulla (or medulla oblongata)
• Transition from Spinal Cord to Brain
• Somatosensory tracts
– To the brain
• Corticospinal tracts
– Descending carry info from cerebrum To the spinal cord
• Pyramids
– Lateralization: Corticospinal tracts cross, and each side
of the brain controls the opposite site of the body
• Its gray matter Controls involuntary functions: blood

pressure, breathing, swallowing, vomiting
Pons
• Relay station between cerebellum and cerebrum
• Also, coordinates control of breathing
Midbrain
• Eye movement, relay signalsCopyright

for hearing and 2016,
© 2019, seeing reflexes
2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cerebellum Coordinates Movement
• Second largest structure
• “Little brain”
• Process sensory information
and coordinate the execution
of movement
– Equilibrium and balance
(sensory) from somatic
receptors
– Motor input from
cerebrum
The Diencephalon Contains the Centers for Homeostasis
• Thalamus – filter center
– Relay station integrating
center
• Hypothalamus
– Control of homeostasis
Allows left side of the brain to talk to our right
– Center for behavioral drives:
for example, hunger, thirst,
– Influences autonomic
function and endocrine
function
• Endocrine structures
– Pituitary gland
▪ Anterior
▪ Poster
– Pineal gland – melatonin
The Cerebrum Is the Site of Higher Brain Functions
• Consists of two hemispheres
connected by corpus callosum
• Gray matter and white matter
• Gray matter
– Cerebral cortex
– Basal ganglia: control of
movement
– Limbic system: link between
cognitive functions and emotions
▪ Amygdala and cingulate
gyrus: emotion and memory
▪ Hippocampus: learning and
memory
• White matter
– Found mostly on the interior
– Bundles of fibers connecting the
different regions ofCopyright
the brain© 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The limbic system The Brain
Limbic system: link between cognitive

functions and emotions
Amygdala and cingulate gyrus:
emotion and memory
Hippocampus: learning and memory
9.6 Brain Function
1) Sensory system
– Monitors internal and
external environments
– Initiates reflex response
2) Cognitive system
– Initiates voluntary responses
3) Behavioral state system

– Governs sleep-wake cycles
and other intrinsic behaviors
Cerebral Cortex is Organized into Functional Areas
• From a functional viewpoint, it
can be divided into three
specializations
1) Sensory areas
▪ Sensory input
translated into
perception (awareness)
2) Motor areas
▪ Direct skeletal muscle
movement
3) Association areas
▪ Integrate information
from sensory and
motor areas
▪ Can direct voluntary
behaviors
• Cerebral lateralizationCopyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Functional areas of the cerebral cortex
Figure 9.14 Cerebral lateralization
The Spinal Cord and Brain Integrate
Sensory Information
• Integration of spinal reflexes
• Primary somatic sensory cortex
– Termination point of pathways from skin, musculoskeletal system,
and viscera
– Somatosensory pathways
▪ Touch, temperature, pain, itch, body position
– Special Senses
▪ Visual cortex, auditory cortex, olfactory cortex, gustatory cortex
(taste and flavor)
• Sensory information is processed into perception
– Neural pathways extend from sensory areas to association areas,
which integrate stimuli into perception
The Motor System Governs Output from
the CNS
• Three major types associated with the efferent division of the NS:
– Skeletal muscle movement
▪ Somatic motor division
– Neuroendocrine signals
▪ Hypothalamus and adrenal medulla
– Visceral responses
▪ Autonomic division
• Voluntary movement
– Primary motor cortex
– Motor association areas
• Neuroendocrine and visceral responses are coordinated in the
hypothalamus and medulla.
Emotion and Motivation Involve Complex Neural Pathways
• The limbic system is the center of emotion
in the human brain
• Motivation is defined as internal signals
that shape voluntary behaviors
• Work with autonomic and endocrine
responses (endo that integrate with our
emotion)
• Motivated behaviors stop when a person
has reached a certain level of satiety
• Pleasure and addictive behaviors: link to
dopamine (when u learn something cool
and it can also be linked to addiction)
Moods are similar to emotions but are
longer-lasting
• Related to one’s sense of well being
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge
• Memory is the ability to retain and recall information
– Stored in memory traces
– Anterograde amnesia is the inability to remember new information
• Short-term memory
– limited storage area that can hold only about 7 to 12 pieces of information at a
time.
• Working memory (special short-term memory)
– keeping track of bits of information long enough to put them to use in a task that
takes place after the information has been acquired
• Long-term memory with consolidation
– processing of information that converts short-term memory into long-term memory
is known as consolidation
Language Is the Most Elaborate Cognitive Behavior
• Integration of spoken language involves two regions
– Wernicke’s area – understanding language
– Broca’s area – produces speech
• Damage to these area leads to aphasia
– Wernicke’s area – receptive aphasia
▪ Unable to understand sensory input
– Broca’s area – expressive aphasia
▪ Unable to understand complicated sentences with multiple elements
▪ Possible deficit in short-term memory
▪ Difficulty speaking or writing normal syntax

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Human Physiology, An Integrated Approach

• Flatworms exhibit primitive brains and nerve cords

• Spinal cord runs through vertebral column

• Produced by the choroid plexus in the

• Surrounds entire brain

• Brain receives 15% of blood pumped by heart

• White Matter – axons that are moving through the CNS

• Spinal reflexes are integrated in the spinal cord.

In many cases, the

Spinal Reflexes play a critical

• Cranial nerves can include sensory fibers,

• Transition from Spinal Cord to Brain

• Its gray matter Controls involuntary functions: blood

• Relay station between cerebellum and cerebrum

• Also, coordinates control of breathing

• Eye movement, relay signalsCopyright

Limbic system: link between cognitive

3) Behavioral state system

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