Welding of Carbon Steels-

Questions you always wanted to ask

R.RAVI
Director
A.R.WELDTECH P LTD,
Chennai
In this program we will deal with….
• Material questions
• Welding Process questions
• Welding Consumable questions
• Welding Procedural questions
• Welding Quality questions
 Material Questions
• What are the different materials available
to us in general?
• How to group and understand them?
• What are their characteristics?
 MATERIALS

M A T E R IA LS

FERRO US NO N FERRO US
 IN FERROUS ALLOYS

FERRO US

STEEL C A S T IR O N
F e -C A L L O Y W IT H C le ss T H A N 1 .7% F e -C A L LO Y W IT H C m o re TH A N 1 .7%
STEELS CAN BE GROUPED
AS

STEEL

P L A IN C S T E E L LO W ALLO Y STE EL H IG H A L L O Y S T E E L
 PLAIN CARBON STEELS

PLAIN C STEELS
CONTAIN ONLY C AS THE ALLOYING ELEMENT

LOW C MILD MEDIUM HIGH

UP TO 0.15C 0.15-0.30C 0.30-0.60C MORE THAN 0.60C
 LOW ALLOY STEELS

L O W A L L O Y S TE E LS
C O N T A IN LE S S T H A N 6 % A L L O Y A D D IT IO N S

L O W T E M P S E R V IC E H IG H T E M P S E R V IC E H IG H S T R E N G T H S E R V ICE
T yp e title h e re
 HIGH ALLOY STEELS

H IG H A L L O Y S T E E LS
M O R E T H A N 6 % A L L O Y A D D IT IO N S

S T A IN LE S S S T E E LS AMS
 In this program…….
• We will be dealing only with Plain Carbon
Steels-contain only carbon as the alloying
element.
• Examples of this group of Steels-IS
2062,IS 2002, SA516Gr70, A36,
SA285GrC
 Welding Process Questions
• What are the different processes
available?
• What are their features?
• What are their advantages and
disadvantages?
• When can I use a particular process?
 Basic Process Groups
• Welding
• Brazing
• Soldering
 As per AWS, WELD is
‘ A localized coalescence of
metals or non metals produced
either by heating the materials to
the welding temperature, with or
with out the application of
pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone and with or with
out filler metal’.
 Common features of welding
processes
• Source of energy-Electrical (arc,resistance,
radiation), Chemical (Gaseous, Thermit)
• Source of shielding-Gas (external or integral ),
Slag,Physical exclusion (Chamber)
• Filler metals-Integral (consumable
insert),External supplies (SMAW), Optional (like
GTAW, autogenous)
 We will be dealing with…
• There are a number of processes
available.
• But we will be dealing only with
SMAW,MIG,TIG,SAW,FCAW processes.
 SMAW-Shielded Metal Arc
Welding
• Also known as stick welding
• Very commonly used process
• Manual process
 WHY A POWER SOURCE?

Supply High V POWER Low V For

LOW I SOURCE High I
Welding

POWER SOURCE CAN DELIVER AC or DC

 AC POWER SOURCES
• Simplest form; Low equipment cost
• Uses a Transformer
• Suitable for certain types of electrodes.
• No rotating part and hence maintenance
cost is low.
• Not suitable for thin gauges
• No Arc Blow
• No choice of Polarity
 DC POWER SOURCES
• Can be Generator or rectifier
• Cost of equipment is high
• Choice of Polarity
• Suitable for all Electrodes
• Suitable for thin Gauges
• Diesel Generators can be useful in site
condition where mains supply is not there.
• Rectifier can give both DC and AC and very
little maintenance
• Arc Blow is possible
 Electrodes carry welding
current
Rods do not carry any current.
ADVANTAGES OF SMAW

• Usability with ease in all positions

• Accessibility even in difficult areas
• Low Investment Cost for equipments
• Easy availability of consumables
• In India, availability of skilled labor
 SMAW Limitations
• Relatively slow
• Slag Removal
• Electrode storage
 SMAW discontinuities
• Porosities-Moisture,Long arc length
• Slag inclusions-improper removal,improper
welding techniques, poor quality of consumable
• Spatter-parameters
• Incomplete penetration-poor fit up,improper
manipulation
• Incomplete fusion-parameters,manipulation
• Arc blow
Gas Metal Arc Welding(GMAW)
• Commonly referred as MIG
• Semi automatic-Automatic, robotic
• Solid wire electrode in spools
• Inert or reactive gas shielding
• Gas mixtures used
 GMAW Equipments
• Power source and controls
• Work piece lead
• Work piece clamp
• Shielding gas regulator
• Wire Feeder unit-Constant speed, Variable
speed
• Welding torch
 Metal transfer in GMAW
• Spray,Globular, Short circuiting
• Depending on Material, voltage, current,
shielding gas
 Shielding gases
• Play a vital role in this process
• Affect arc characteristics, mode of metal
transfer, penetration, bead profile, speed
of welding, undercutting tendency,
cleaning action, mechanical properties.
• Normally Argon,CO2,He,and gas mixtures
are used
 Inert gases-Ar & He
• Argon
• 1.4 times heavier than air
• Less gas required
Lower thermal conductivity-
finger type penetration
• Produces spray transfer
• Used for wide range of
materials
• Helium
• 0.14 times heavier than
air
• More shielding gas
required
• Higher thermal
conductivity-deep broad
parabolic penetration
• Used for high conductivity
materials like Cu
• All alone does not
produce spray transfer-
normally mixed with Ar.
 Shielding gases-Active gas-
CO2
• Active gas
• Used for Carbon and low alloy steels
• Higher speed, greater penetration, lower
cost are its common features
• Transfer will be short circuiting or globular
• Globular is harsh and with lot of spatter
• In general the spatter is more and bead is
rough.
 Gas mixtures
• Ar+O2+CO2
• Ar+He+CO2
• Ar+He+CO2+O2
• Ar+O2
• Ar+ He
• Ar+CO2
 GMAW advantages
• High productivity-more arc time, bulk
spools
• No slag removal-Clean process
• Continuous feed
• Welds most alloys
• Lowest Hydrogen potential of all
processes
 GMAW limitations
• Unsuitable for windy conditions-5mph
max.
• Little tolerance for contamination
• Usually limited to shop welding
• Complex equipment
• Consumables like liners,contact tubes
required
 GMAW discontinuities
• Porosity
• Incomplete fusion
• Incomplete joint penetration
Flux cored Arc Welding(FCAW)
• Uses tubular electrode
• It is a flux process
• Gas shielding optional
• Otherwise similar to GMAW.
GAS SHIELDED VERSION
OPEN ARC VERSION
 Self shielded guns have a
hand shield
since they operate at higher
currents produce more heat
and since there is no gas to
cool.
 FCAW equipments
• Similar to GMAW
 FCAW Advantages
• High Productivity
• Tolerates contamination
• Deep penetration capability
• Suitable for field work
 FCAW Limitations
• Slag Removal
• Smoky process
• Electrode cost
• Equipment complexity
 FCAW Discontinuities
• Slag inclusions
• Porosity
• Incomplete fusion
• Incomplete joint penetration
 Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding(GTAW)
• Commonly called TIG
• Inert gas shielding required
• Use tungsten electrode
 Torches
• Gas cooled- 100A max
• Water cooled-Less maneuverable
 GTAW Equipments
• Power supply and HF control
• Work piece clamp and leads
• Torch-Water, Air cooled
• Circulation unit
• Shielding gas regulator
• Shielding gas
 GTAW Advantages
• Good for thin materials
• High quality welds
• Good appearance
• Very clean
• No slag
• Mechanisation potential
 GTAW Limitations
• Relatively slow
• Low tolerance for contamination
• Two handed process
 GTAW Discontinuities
• Porosity
• Incomplete fusion
• Incomplete joint penetration
• Tungsten inclusions-appears as white
areas in RT film
Submerged Arc Welding(SAW)
• A flux process
• Automatic
• Shop and field applications
 SAW Advantages
• High deposition rates; ideal for higher thickness
• Deep penetration
• Automatic process
• Hand held process also-common in ship yards
• Good for overlays
• High operator appeal-arc covered; good bead
shape
 SAW Limitations
• Flat or horizontal fillets only
• Extensive set up time
• Needs positioning equipment
• Arc not visible
• Slag removal
• Economical for higher thickness
 SAW Discontinuities
• Groove alignment
• Slag inclusions
• Porosity
• Incomplete fusion
• Cracking (W/D ratio)
Welding Consumable Questions
• What are the consumables for different
processes? Materials?
• What are their characteristics?
• What are the various types?
• How are they recognised?/ Identified?/
Selected?
• How to store them and how long?
The consumables which we will be
discussing are…
• Electrode
• Wire- both solid and flux cored
• Shielding gases
• W electrode-strictly it is not a consumable.
 ELECTRODE
• A core wire with a flux covering over it.
• A binder is used for this coating to
adhere to the core wire
• Electrode is specified in terms of Dia. Of
core wire x Length (in mm)
Dia. Of Coating
• Coating Factor Dia.
: Of Core wire
FUNCTIONS OF FLUX COVERING

• It stabilises the arc

• Produces gases to shield the molten
metal during its transfer through the arc
• Provides scavengers, deoxidisers and
fluxing agents to cleanse the weld
• Forms slag and protects the hot weld
metal thus improving the bead shape
• Provides a means of adding alloying
elements to the weld metal
 TYPES OF COATING
Rutile : Having high proportion of
ingredients like
Ti02, Si02, Zr02, Al203, etc.
Basic : Having high proportion of
(Low Hydrogen) ingredients like Fluorides,
Carbonates, Oxides of Na,
K,
Ca, Fe etc.
 RUTILE BASIC / LH
• Good performance • Not so Good performance
Characteristics • Operators not so well on
• Operate on AC & DC Ac
• Low OCV operation • Not so well on low OCV
• Not so good operator
• Good operator appeal
appeal
• High in hydrogen levels • Low in Hydrogen levels
• Poor subzero toughness • Good subzero toughness
• No rebaking • Requires rebaking
ABOUT LH ELECTRODES
• When the coating melts there is a
copious evolution of CO2 which
shields the weld metal form
hydrogen and ensures low level in
the weld metal.

• These electrodes require rebaking

before usage.
REBAKING SCHEDULE FOR
LH ELECTRODES
• Rebake the electrodes at 250 - 300°c.
for one hour
• Cool them in the same oven to 100°c.
• Transfer them to a holding oven
maintained at 60 - 70°c.
• Draw from this oven for use
• Do not keep rutile types in the same
oven at the same time.
 OTHER TYPES OF
ELECTRODES
• High Deposition Efficiency
Electrodes (or) Iron Powder
Electrodes

• Deep penetration electrodes

• Cellulosic type electrodes

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR
ELECTRODES

• IS System

• AWS System
 INDICATIVE ALPHABETS
• A - C-Mo STEEL
• B – Cr-Mo STEEL
• Ni – Ni STEELS
• D – Mn-Mo STEELS
• K – Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo-C STEELS
 MOISTURE RESISTANT ELECTRODE
 They resist pick up of moisture even after long exposures.
 AWS specifies requirements for these types. These are
distinguished by “R” subscript.
Max.Moisture Content % by weight
After exposure to 80%
Designation As received RH at 27°C for 9 hrs.

E 7016 R
E 7016 - 1R
E 7018 -R 0.3 0.40
E 7018 - 1R
E 7028 -R
E 7048 -R
E 7018 -M 0.1 0.40
 VACUUM PACKED
ELECTRODES
• In this type of packing since there is practically
no air inside the packing the electrodes are very
dry;they also resist moisture pick up
• They can be used with out rebaking
• Packages are small so that elecrodes once
opened are consumed immediately
• Ideal where rebaking is not feasible
 TESTING OF ELECTRODES

• Physical Tests
• Chemical Tests
• Mechanical Tests
 PHYSICAL TEST
• Uniform, smooth coating
• Crack free, defect free coating
• Proper brushing of holding,
striking ends
• Concentric coating
• No rusting of core wire
• Not bent
 ECCENTRIC ELECTRODES

• Core wire and coating should be

concentric
• With eccentric coating arc deflects;
but one should distinguish from arc
blow (using AC)
• Dial gauges are used during
manufacturing to control this. Do
not check the tip of electrode.
 Chemical Tests
• To analyse the deposit chemistry
• It involves depositing a few layers of weld
deposit and analyse the weld metal
chemistry at the top.
 Mechanical Tests
• It involves preparing an assembly of
specific dimension and testing the all weld
metal specimens from them.
• Gives the properties of all weld metal like
UTS, YS, %Elongation, CVN impact
strength.
SHELF LIFE
OF
ELECTRODES
 FAQS

• How long can we store the electrodes?

• What happens if this period is exceeded?
• How to store the electrodes?
• Is there any definite shelf life for electrodes?
• How to store electrodes for longer periods?
 WHAT HAPPENS
DURING STORAGE

• No loss of elements take place

• Flux coating absorbs moisture

• Rusting of core wire is a possibility

 HOW TO STORE
THE ELECTRODES
• Preferably in a dry room
• Electrodes should be stored in cartons in
suitable racks.
• Ideal to store in a room where RH is below
40% at normal room temperature.
 SHELF LIFE OF
ELECTRODES
DEPENDS ON THE WAY
IT IS STORED
• Normally if the electrodes are stored in
a dry room, away from moisture without
much of humidity they can go through
one / two monsoons.
 JUDGING A
MOIST ELECTRODE

• Hold ten pieces of electrodes

horizontally using both hands and shake
them
– Metallic Sound - Dry Electrodes
– Dull Sound - Wet Electrodes
 SALVAGING OLD
ELECTRODES
• Check if the carton is in tact
• Remove the electrodes and see them physically for
rust, flux peeling etc. If yes, then reject the
electrodes
• Check for moisture pick up - Sound test
• Rebake the electrode
• Lay a bead and check for defects
• Carry out an all weld metal test and if found OK
accept and use the electrodes
 ER XXS-X
• ER-Electrode Rod-covers both where wire
carries current and does not
• XX-Strength
• S- Solid wire
• X-Chemical composition-de-oxidising
characteristics,higher the number more
de-oxidising
 EXXT-X
• E-electrode
• X-Strength
• X-Position-0-all position; 1-F,H
• T-Tubular
• X-Chem comp, Operating Charc-Self
shielded-3,4,6,7,8,10,11,13,14-Gas
shielded-1,2,5
AWS tungsten electrode
classifications
Class Alloy Color

EWP Pure W Green

EWce2 1.8-2.2Ce Orange

EWLa1 1La oxide Black

EWTh1 0.8-1.2Th Yellow

EWTh2 1.7-2.2Th Red

EWZr 0.15-0.4Zr Brown

 F XXX-EXXX
• F-Flux • E-Electrode-EC cored
• X-Tensile strength • X-Mn level;L,M,H,
• X-Heat • XX-Carbon nominal
Treatment,A,W percentage
• X-CVN test temp. 6-
minus 60F;4-minus
40F
 F7A6-EM12K
• UTS of weld metal min 70000 psi
• Properties in As welded condition
• CVN at minus 60F will be 20ftlb min.
• Wire used will be EM12K-silicon killed with
1.2Mn and 0.12C.
 Welding Procedure Questions
• How does the plain carbon steel behave during
welding?
• What processes can be used for welding PCS?
• Why do some welds crack? When do they
crack? How to avoid them?
• Why should we preheat? How? How much?
• When should we post heat? Why? How much?
How long?
• When should we PWHT?
 Properties of Materials
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Yield strength
• Elongation percentage
• Ductility
• Malleability
• Toughness
• Hardness
 Hardening Mechanisms
• Solid solution strengthening
• Precipitation hardening
• Work hardening
• Heat treatments like quenching, nitriding, case hardening
• In general the changes in the proportion of phases
produces harder materials
• In welding apart from the composition the cooling rate of
the weld metal influences the proportion of the hard
phases.
• In general the addition of allying elements tend harden
the material.
 PHASES IN STEEL
• Austenite

• Ferrite

• Pearlite

• Martensite- a hard phase

• Cementite

• Composition, cooling rate play a vital role in deciding the

phase that will exist at a temperature.
 Cooling rate is very vital
• The cooling rate of the weldment is very
critical in deciding the cracking tendency
• The higher the cooling rate the more the
tendency for formation of hard phase
 HEAT INPUT
H (KJ/cm) = V x I x 60
1000 x Vs

V = Arc Voltage;
I = Arc Current
Vs = Welding speed in cm/min
• Varies with parameters, process
• Influences the cooling rate-higher heat input-
slower cooling rate
 PREHEATING
• Defined as the heat applied to base material
before welding.
• It basically reduces the cooling rate of the
weld metal.
• Temperature up to which preheating is to be
done is dependent on
– Base Material Composition
– Thickness of the Base Material
 CHEMICAL CARBON
EQUIVALENT

360CC = 360C + 40 (Mn+Cr) + 20 Ni+28 Mo

Ct (Thickness equivalent) = Cc x 0.005 x tmm

CE = C c + Ct

T°c = 350 (CE - 0.25)

 POST WELD HEAT
TREATMENT
• Done after completion of Welding
• Normally a stress relieving heat treatment
• Many times, codes specify the time,
temperature and whether mandatory or
non-mandatory
 WELDABILITY OF STEELS
• The ease with which a weld can be produced
– Under specific welding conditions
– To a suitably designed structure
– To perform satisfactory in service
• Weldability tests are used to grade the
materials. Most of the tests determine the
cracking tendency of the weld.
 STEPS INVOLVED IN WELDING
PLAIN CARBON STEELS

Selecting the consumable

Forming the procedure

Qualifying the procedure

Actual welding
 SELECTING THE CONSUMABLE FACTORS
THAT ARE TO BE CONSIDERED

Chemical composition of base material

Mechanical properties required
Service requirements of the joint
Position of Welding
Deposition requirements
Joint design / fit up
Penetration requirements
Rutile Types : For General applications not involving
dynamic loads, sub zero temperature
properties. Generally used up to 16mm
thickness only.

LH-Types : For application involving dynamic loads,

sub zero toughness properties.
Generally used for all thickness.
 Use an all position Electrode when welding job
involves all position
 Use high deposition electrodes when the job is to be
done in down hand and large amount of deposition is
to be done. High deposition electrodes will have
limitations on welding position.
 Use deep penetration electrodes, cellulosic type
electrodes to achieve higher penetration (or) to make
one side welding respectively.
 SELECTING AN ELECTRODE
FOR PLAIN CARBON STEELS

For Material thickness

< 16mm : Use rutile types
> 16mm : Use LH types
For Carbon percentages > 0.3% it is
preferable to use LH-types.
Most of the electrodes and covered in
SFA 5.1
 Consumables for other
processes
• TIG / MIG /MAG : A5.18 Eg: ER70S6
• FCAW : A5.20-Eg: E71T1
• SAW : A 5.17 –Eg: F7A0EL8.
 FORMING THE WELDING
PROCEDURE
For thickness below 16mm preheat may not
be required; For above use preheat
Use stringer beads; weaving should be
restricted to 2.5 x dia of electrode
Post heating may not be necessary
Post weld heat treatment to be done as per
relevant code/specification
For higher Carbon Steels C > 0.3 use preheat
 QUALIFYING A PROCEDURE
It is better always to quality the
procedure on a test piece
ASME Sec IX specifies the method for
this
Qualifying a procedure ensures that the
technique, method, parameters used to
weld the material can produce
satisfactory properties.
The qualified procedure can be used for
actual welding of the job
 WELDING IS AN
ART & SCIENCE
• A LOT DEPENDS ON THE WELDER /
OPERATOR TO ACHIEVE A DEFECT FREE
WELD.
• HIS SKILLS PLAY A VITAL ROLE.
• PROPER TRAINING, DEVOTION TO TRADE
CAN PRODUCE WELDERS PAR
EXCELLENT.
 SUMMARY
S. Thickness Service
Materials Special Electrode AWS
No. requirement type
Static Load
1. C.S.C < 0.3 <15 mm Normal - Rutile E 6013
Temp.
Higher
Static Load Metal Rutile
2. C.S.C < 0.3 < 15 mm Normal Recovery, Iron E 7014
Temp. Higher Powder
Strength

Subzero, Higher LH. Iron

3. C.S.C > 0.3 > 15 mm E 7018
Dynamic Metal Powder
Loads Recovery
4. < 15 mm -do- -do- -do- E 7018
C.S.C. < 0.3
 Quality related Questions
• How to prevent defects?
• How do they occur?
• How much harmful are they?
• How to detect them?