Chapter 2: Earth

Materials and
Processes
ENDOGENIC
PROCESS
 ENDOGENIC
PROCESS
•Processes that is
formed or occurring
beneath the surface of
the Earth.
MAGMA
 a mixture of
molten
rock, minerals
and gases.
 This mixture is usually made up of a
hot liquid base called the melt,
minerals crystallized by the melt,
solid rocks incorporated into the
melt from the surrounding confines
and dissolved gases.
 MAGMA
originates from the lower part
of the Earth’s crust and in the
upper portion of the mantle
known as asthenosphere.
 How Are Magmas
Formed ?
• At about 30 to 65 km below the earth’s surface, the
temperature is high enough to melt rocks into magma.
The reason why it is difficult to drill holes deep into the
crust is that the temperature rises about 30 degree for
every kilometer.
• The asthenosphere which is between 100 to 350km deep is
so hot that most of the rock is melted . The melt flows very
slowly because it is under intense pressure. Magma
reaches temperatures between 600 degree 140 degree
Celsius.
 Gases in
•
Magma
Deep in the Earth, nearly all magmas contain gas
dissolved in the liquid, As magma rises at the surface of
the Earth, pressure is decreased and the gas forms a
separate vapor phase. This is somewhat similar to
carbonated beverages which are bottled at high
pressure.
• When magma emerges on the surface of the Earth, it is
called lava. Lava spilling over or erupting from craters is
usually bubbly, a sign that gases are escaping.
 Viscosity of
Magmas
•Viscosity is the resistance to
flow
(an antonym for fluidity).
• Magma with higher silica content has higher viscosity.
Viscosity increases with increasing silica concentration in the
magma.
• Magma with low temperature has higher viscosity than those
 Magma Escape
• Routes
Magma leaves the confines of the asthenosphere and
crust in two major ways; an intrusion or extrusion.
• Magma can intruded into low-density area of another
geologic form such as a sedimentary rock. When it cools
and hardens, this intrusion develops into an pluton
commonly know as an igneous intrusive rock.
• Magma rises towards the Earth`s surface where are less
dense surrounding rocks and when a structural zone
allows movement.
 Magma Chamber
• Magma develops within the upper mantle and
crust where the temperature and pressure
conditions favor the molten state. Magma collects
in areas called magma chamber.
• The pool of magma in a magma chamber is
layered. The least dense magma rises to the top.
The densest magma sinks at the bottom of the
chamber.
Ways to Generate
Magma
1. Decompression
Melting
2. Transfer of Heat
3. Flux Melting
Ways to Generate
Magma
1) Decompression Melting
 involves the upward movement of the
Earth’s mostly solid mantle
 this hot material rises to an area of
lower pressure through the process of
convection.
Ways to Generate
Magma
2) Transfer of Heat
 Happens when hot, liquid rock
intrudes into the Earth’s crust. As the
liquid rock solidifies, it loses this heat
and transfers it to the surrounding
crust.
Ways to Generate
Magma
3) Flux Melting
 It occurs when water or carbon
dioxide is added on rocks. these
affects the melting point of rock
when added with water beneath
the earth it generates magma.
 Types of
Magma
1. Felsic Magma
2. Intermediate Magma
3. Mafic Magma
4. Ultramafic Magma
Felsic Magma
This type of magma is low in iron
but high in potassium and sodium
this form makes granite rocks.
Intermediate Magma
This normally found in
volcano that erupts,
after the eruption it
releases a lava that has
high silica and very
viscous/ it commonly
produced Andesite
Rock.
Mafic Magma
Mafic magma has relatively low
silica content but high in iron and
magnesium. This magma has a low
gas content

and low viscosity. Mafic magma

has high average temperature
which contributes to its low
velocity. Low velocity means that
mafic magma is the most fluid of all
magma types.
 Mafic Magma

basalt
Ultramafic Magma
Today our planet is too cool,
for ultramafic magma to form.
This is a probably a good
thing, since ultramafic
magma would be the hottest
and fastest flowing magma.
 Rock
Deformation
1.Stress 3.Joint
s
2.Strain 4.Fault
 Rock
Deformation
1) Stress
 the force that could create deformation
on rocks in their shape and/ volume.
 Great forces from several directions may act on the
lithospheric plates causing them to move. Although this
crustal plates are elastic solid, they are subjected to great
forces such as pulling, pushing or squeezing.
Kinds of
Stress
1) Lithostatic stress
 Rock beneath the Earth’s surface
experiences equal pressure
exerted
on it from all directions because
the weight of the overlying rock.
 It is like the hydrostatic stress (water pressure) that a person
feels pressing all over his body when diving down deep in
the water.
Kinds of
Stress
2) Differential stress
 stress on rocks that are caused by an
additional due to unequal stress due
to tectonic forces.
 3 Kinds are
a) Tensional stress (stretching)
b) Compressional stress (squeezing)
c) Shear stress
Types of Differential
Stress
a) Tensional stress (stretching). This is when rock is stretched
apart or pulled apart. Where crustal plates diverge, rocks
are pulled apart.
b) Compressional stress (squeezing). This is when rock is
pressed, squeezed or pushed together . It’s like a car
caught in the middle of a long pile up on the highway.
Where crustal plates collide, rocks are compressed or
pushed.
c) Shear stress which results in slippage and translation. With
shear stress, the rock is being pulled in opposite
directions. It is similar to the motion between individual
playing cards when the top of the stack is moved relative
to the bottom.
 Rock
Deformation
2) Strain
 ability of a rock material to
handle stress depends on
the elasticity of the rock.
 Types of
a) Deformation
Elastic deformation
 For small differential stresses, less than the yield
strength,
rock deforms like a spring. It changes in shape by a very
small amount in response to the stress. The deformation is
not permanent. This deformation is reversable. The rock
can return to its original shape.
b) Brittle deformation or Fracture
 Near the Earth’s surface rock behave in its familiar brittle
fashion. If a differential stress is applied that is greater
than the rock’s yield strength, the rock fractures.
Fracture is an is
 Rock
Deformation
3) Joints
 fractures in rocks that
show little or no
movement at all.
 Rock
Deformation
4) Faults
 are extremely long and deep
break or large crack in a
rock
 a result of continuous
pulling and pushing.
 Types of
Faults
a) Dip-slip fault (Normal
fault)

b) Strike-slip fault

c) Reverse (or thrust) fault

 Types of
1)Faults
Dip-slip fault (Normal fault)
 occurs when brittle rocks are stretched-
tectonic tensional forces are involved and the
movement of blocks or rock is mainly in the vertical
direction (sinking and rising).
 For dip-slip faults, the block lying on the top of the
fault surface is referred to as the hanging wall while
the one below is referred to as the footwall.
 Normal fault tends to dip about 600. The hanging
wall has moved downward relative to the footwall.
Normal faults are the chief structural components of
many sedimentary rift basins like the North Sea where
they have major significance for hydrocarbon
exploration.
 Types of
2)Faults
Strike-slip fault
 occurs when brittle rocks are sheared (the
opposing tectonic forces are at right angles
to compression and tension directions) and
the movement of blocks of rock is chiefly in
the horizontal direction.
 If the far side of the fault moves to the left
relative to an observer it is called “sinistral
strike- slip fault” (left-lateral).
 Types of
3)Faults
Reverse (or thrust) fault
occur when brittle rocks are
pushed (the tectonic forces are
compressional).
 Philippines has many faults. One of this is the Marikina
Valley Fault System that contains two major segments: the West
Valley Fault and the East Valley Fault.
The West Valley Fault which is believed to impact as the
BIG ONE is a dominantly strike-slip fault that extends from
Dingalan, Aurora in the North and runs through the provinces of
Nueva Ecija, Bulacan (Dona Rosario Trinidad, Norzagaray, San
Jose del Monte), Rodriguez, Rizal and the cities of Metro Manila
which include Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig, Makati,
Parañaque, Taguig and Muntinlupa and the provinces of
Laguna (San Pedro, Biñan, Sta.
Rosa, Cabuyao, Calamba) and C avite (Carmona, Gen.
Mariano Alvarez, Silang) that ends in Tagaytay. The eastern
segment known as the East Valley Fault moves in an oblique
dextral motion. It affects the area of Rodriguez and San Mateo
Deformatio
n Rocks buried deep within the Earth’s crust
behave differently when subjected to differential
stress. It is impossible to produce fracture in rocks
the way it is at the Earth’s surface. Rocks
become thicker under compressional stress and
thinner under tensional stress. Rock layers tend to
bend and go out of shape. The high
temperature condition makes a rock softer, less
brittle and more ductile.
FOLD
 promoted by high temperature and pressure
S at great depth.
 When rocks deform in a ductile manner, instead
of fracturing to form faults or joints, they may
bend or fold and the resulting structures are
called folds.
 Kinds of folds:
1.Monoclines
2.Synclines
3.Anticlines
Kinds of
Folds 1) Monocline
 are the simplest
types
of folds. Monoclines
occur when the
horizontal layers
are bent upward
so that two limbs
of the fold are still
Kinds of
Folds 2) Syncline
 are folds structures
when
the original rock layers
have been folded
downward and the two
limbs of the fold dip
inward toward the
hinge of the fold.
Kinds of
Folds 3) Anticline
 are fold structures
formed when the
originally rock layers
have been folded
upward and the two
limbs of the fold dip
away from the hinge of
the fold.
 Synclines and anticlines usually occur
together such that the limb of a syncline is also
the limb of an anticline. The anticline may
form mountains, hills or ridges while the
syncline may from valleys.
Faults and folds are geological structure
that result from the response of rocks to
tectonic stresses induced by plate movements.
REFERENCE:
• Moncada, M. et. al (2016). Earth and Life Science for Senior High School.

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