Chapter –2

Database system
Concepts and Architecture

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Database Systems
 Database system consists of logically related
data stored in a single logical data repository
 May be physically distributed among multiple
storage facilities
 DBMS eliminates most of file system’s problems
 Current generation stores data structures,
relationships between structures, and access paths
 Also defines, stores, and manages all access paths and
components

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The Database System
Environment
 Database system: defines and regulates the
collection, storage, management, use of data
 Five major parts of a database system:
 Hardware
 Software
 People
 Procedures
 Data

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The Database System
Environment (cont'd.)
 Hardware: all the system’s physical
devices
 Software: three types of software
required:
 Operating system software
 DBMS software
 Application programs and utility software

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The Database System Environment (cont'd.)

 People: all users of the database system

 System and database administrators
 Database designers
 Systems analysts and programmers
 End users
 Procedures: instructions and rules that govern
the design and use of the database system
 Data: the collection of facts stored in the database

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The Database System
Environment (cont'd.)
 Database systems are created and
managed at different levels of complexity
 Database solutions must be cost-effective
as well as tactically and strategically
effective
 Database technology already in use
affects selection of a database system

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Types of Databases
 Databases can be classified according to:
 Number of users
 Database location(s)
 Expected type and extent of use
 Single-user database supports only one user at
a time
 Desktop database: single-user; runs on PC
 Multiuser database supports multiple users at
the same time
 Workgroup and enterprise databases

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Types of Databases (cont’d.)
 Centralized database: data located at a single site
 Distributed database: data distributed across
several different sites
 Operational database: supports a company’s day-
to-day operations
 Transactional or production database
 Data warehouse: stores data used for tactical or
strategic decisions

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Types of Databases (cont'd.)
 Unstructured data exist in their original state
 Structured data result from formatting
 Structure
applied based on type of processing to be
performed
 Semistructured data have been processed to some
extent
 Extensible Markup Language (XML) represents
data elements in textual format
 XML database supports semistructured XML data

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 Database abstraction
 Data abstraction refers to, providing only
essential information to the outside world and
hiding their background details, i.e., to represent
the needed information in program without
presenting the details.
 Data abstraction is a programming (and design)
technique that relies on the separation of
interface and implementation.
 Data abstraction is usually the first step in
database design. Data abstraction makes it
possible for the developer to start from essential
elements
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Database languages
Data Definition Language (DDL):
Language used to define each data
element required by the organization.
Commands for setting up schema or the
intension of database
These commands are used to setup a
database, create, delete and alter table with
the facility of handling constraints
are used to define the database structure or
schema. 11
Examples
 CREATE - to create objects in the database
 ALTER - alters the structure of the database
 DROP - delete objects from the database
 TRUNCATE - remove all records from a
table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed
 COMMENT - add comments to the data
dictionary
 RENAME - rename an object

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Data Manipulation Language (DML):

 Is a core command used by end-users

and programmers to store, retrieve, and
access the data in the database e.g. SQL
 Since the required data or Query by the
user will be extracted using this type of
language, it is also called "Query
Language"
 is used for managing data within schema
objects.
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Examples
 SELECT - retrieve data from the a
database
 INSERT - insert data into a table
 UPDATE - updates existing data within a
table
 DELETE - deletes all records from a
table, the space for the records remain
 LOCK TABLE - control concurrency

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Data control languages
 GRANT - gives user's access privileges
to database
 REVOKE - withdraw access privileges
given with the GRANT command

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Database Architecture
 The design of a Database Management
System highly depends on its architecture.
 It can be centralized or decentralized or
hierarchical.
 DBMS architecture can be seen as single
tier or multi tier.
 n-tier architecture divides the whole
system into related but independent n
modules, which can be independently
modified, altered, changed or replaced.
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3-tier architecture
 Most widely used architecture is 3-tier
architecture. 3-tier architecture separates it
tier from each other on basis of users. It is
described as follows:

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 Cont…
 Database (Data) Tier: At this tier, only database
resides. Database along with its query processing
languages sits in layer-3 of 3-tier architecture.
 Application (Middle) Tier: At this tier the application
server and program, which access database,
resides. For a user this application tier works as
abstracted view of database. Users are unaware of
any existence of database beyond application.
 User (Presentation) Tier: An end user sits on this
tier. At this layer multiple views of database can be
provided by the application. All views are generated
by applications, which reside in application tier.
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 3 Levels of Abstraction
 Physical or Internal Level
 Lowest level of abstraction describes how data are
actually stored
 Describes complex low-level data structures in detail
 Logical or Conceptual Level
 Describes what data are stored in the DB & what
relationships exist among those data
 Describes the entire DB in terms of relatively simpler
structures
 View or External Level
 Highest level of abstraction which describes only a part
of the DB
 User’s view of the DB. This level describes that part of
the DB that is relevant to each user

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Levels of Abstraction

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 ANSI/SPARC 3-Tier Architecture

 ANSI (American National Standards Institute)-SPARC

(Standards Planning & Requirements Committee)
produced similar terminology & architecture.
 ANSI-SPARC recognized the need for a 3-tier
architecture

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ANSI/SPARC 3-Tier Architecture

User User User

1 2 n
External
Level
View 1 View 2 … View n

Conceptual/
Logical Level Conceptual Schema

Internal Physical Schema

Level

Database

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 Data Independence
 The ability to modify a schema definition in
one level with out affecting a scheme
definition in the next higher level is called DI
 Major objective of the 3-tier architecture is
to proved data independence (DI)
 Upper levels are unaffected by changes at
the lower level
 Two kinds of DI:
 LogicalDI
 Physical DI

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 Data Independence
Logical DI
 resistance of the external schemas to
changes in the conceptual schema
 Addition or removal of entities, attributes, or
relationships, should be possible without
having to change the external schemas or
having to rewrite the application programs

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 Data Independence
Physical DI
 resistance of the conceptual schema to
changes in the internal schema
 Using different file organizations or storage
structures, using different storage devices,
modifying indexes, or changing hashing
algorithms should be possible without having to
change the upper schemas
 Deterioration in performance is the most
common reason for internal schema changes

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